Abstract: Recent advances in video technology and deep learning methodologies have fostered the research in emotion recognition, the creation of dedicated databases and the set-up of ad hoc experiments. The adoption of different techniques to assess the emotion, from self-reports to facial expression recognition algorithms, has fuelled research on representing and comparing achieved results. Inspired by Russell's circumplex model of affect, this study proposes a novel graphic design based on balloon plot concept to incorporate and compare results from two different assessment techniques. As a case study, we apply this design to the creation of a spontaneous facial expression database, where self-reports are compared to expected results. A user study has been conducted, and a validation was carried out, revealing high perceived usability among participants. The result is an immediate graphical representation with qualitative and quantitative significance that could be customised depending on the experiment, thereby providing a compact alternative to traditional representations.

Keywords: Affective database | Affective dimensions | Emotion recognition | Emotional assessment | Graphic design | Valence-arousal

Abstract: The use of virtual reality (VR) in higher education and training has been widely explored in various fields, with divergent results. This study examines whether VR is a suitable learning support tool compared to traditional methods, such as 2D static slides or physical models, focusing on usability, workload, and learning effectiveness in an engineering education context. A total of 184 first-year BSc engineering students voluntarily participated in an experimental activity. Participants were divided into three groups, each experiencing a different learning condition: slides-based, VR-based, and physical model-based. The study design ensured comparability across conditions using 3 out of 4 levels provided by the ICAP (Interactive, Constructive, Active, Passive) framework. Usability was assessed using the System Usability Scale, workload via the NASA Task Load Index, and learning outcomes through a task-based test. The study found no significant differences in test scores across the three conditions. However, participants in the VR-based and physical model-based conditions reported significantly higher usability and lower perceived workload compared to the slides-based condition. The VR-based condition provided an immersive environment while maintaining comparability in cognitive engagement. The findings demonstrate that VR can serve as an effective alternative to traditional learning methods, particularly for enhancing usability and reducing cognitive workload. However, its integration must be carefully designed to ensure cognitive engagement and optimize learning outcomes. This study highlights VR's potential in engineering education and underscores the importance of aligning tools with pedagogical goals.

Keywords: engineering education | learning | usability | virtual reality | workload

Abstract: This paper presents a cognitive model designed to reproduce human drivers' errors in predicting the motion of nearby vulnerable road users. We aim to define a computational model that, given both the trajectory of the eye gaze of a human driver and the trajectory of a bicycle, can compute the probability distribution of where the human driver believes the bicycle will be in the near future. For the design and validation of the proposed cognitive model, we tested 51 subjects in immersive virtual reality scenarios. The results indicate that the proposed model can generate probability distributions of the human drivers' beliefs about the future bicycle position that are very similar, though not statistically equivalent, to those obtained experimentally. Such models could easily be generalized to describe how drivers misjudge the motion of other road users. This may enable ADAS to evaluate and improve drivers' situational awareness. In the future, these models could also be used by autonomous cars to evaluate situational awareness of nearby humans, enabling a safer coexistence of autonomous vehicles and vulnerable road users.

Keywords: ADAS | cognitive model | motion prediction | situation awareness | vulnerable road users

Abstract: Although mood and emotion are often considered distinct concepts, their precise definitions remain a matter of debate within the scientific community. In this study, we propose to assess mood in a real-life environment using a combination of physiological measures and self-assessment questionnaires. We benefit from the insights gained from our pilot study in designing the experimental protocol. In particular, regarding the selection of stimuli, we hypothesise that mood will have a greater influence on the evaluation of neutral or low-polarised stimuli on the unpleasantness/pleasantness dimension of Russell's Circumplex Model of Affect. Furthermore, we have developed a smartphone application to serve as a more reliable platform for Ecological Momentary Assessments (EMAs). Our experiment will involve 90 university students over a period of two weeks.

Keywords: ecological momentary assessment | emotions | mood assessment | physiological signals | real-life experimentation

Abstract: The paper presents an overview of current training endeavours for technology-related/professional skill acquisition in immersive environments together with educational/training needs that emerge from the literature. The aim is to establish a general framework for the design and development of educational initiatives for lifelong learners, both HEI students and professional. The paper details how immersive technologies enable a wide variety of skills (e.g. psychomotor, spatial, procedural, decisional skills) to be acquired and trained while reducing the costly and risky conditions of on the field training.

Keywords: Education Framework | Immersive Environment | Professional Skill Training

Abstract: Digital transformation of industrial training processes is still an ongoing process. The transformation requires a specific training model to be applied to an already structured context, to experienced workers, sometimes with their needs and specific skills, and the solution is designed considering a series of boundary conditions. To design a new training model that the industry will accept, it is important to consider the design space offered by technology, but at the same time, to consider human complexity. This paper proposes a methodology to analyze current training strategies in the industrial sector to design new tools according to a digital transformation logic that considers the underlying principle of the human centricity of Industry 5.

Keywords: Digital transformation | Industrial training | Industry 5.0

Abstract: In an era characterized by the increasing complexity of products and the rapid turnover of the workforce across different companies, there is a growing need to invest significantly in quick and efficient training methods. Concurrently, the advancement of digitalization has rendered certain training practices anchored to paper-based materials obsolete. Numerous companies are directing their investments toward digital training, yet the optimal format to exploit the full advantages of digitalization remains unclear. This study undertakes a comparison of four distinct digital versions of the same training process with the aim of comprehending the tangible benefits.

Keywords: virtual and augmented reality environments | virtual prototyping

Abstract: Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is an obstetric emergency causing nearly one-quarter of maternal deaths worldwide, 99% of these in low-resource settings (LRSs). Uterine balloon tamponade (UBT) devices are a non-surgical treatment to stop PPH. In LRSs, low-cost versions of UBT devices are based on the condom balloon tamponade (CBT) technique, but their effectiveness is limited. This paper discusses the experimental study to assess the usability and performance of a medical device, BAMBI, designed as an alternative to current CBT devices. The testing phase involved medical and non-medical personnel and was focused on testing BAMBI's usability and effectiveness compared to a standard CBT solution. We collected measures of the execution time and the procedure outcome. Different training procedures were also compared. Results show a significant preference for the BAMBI device. Besides, medical and non-medical subjects reached comparable outcomes. This aspect is highly relevant in LRSs where the availability of medical personnel could be limited

Keywords: Maternal mortality | Medical device | Patient safety | Sustainable development goals | Usability | User-centered design | Uterine balloon tamponade device

Abstract: The role played by emotions and attention is crucial for the development of advanced driver assistance systems that improve safety by flexibly adapting to the current state of the driver. In the present study, we used immersive virtual reality as a testing tool to investigate how different emotional states affect drivers' attention in a divided attention task. Two different emotional states, diversified by valence and arousal, were induced before performing a divided attention task in a driving simulation. The experimental task developed for this study allowed us to explore if and how two different emotional states can affect the way drivers divide their attention between a central driving-related task and a peripheral visual task. Our results showed that scared drivers presented lower reaction times at the central task compared to relaxed drivers. On the contrary, the emotional state did not affect the performance at the peripheral task, which revealed instead a significant effect of the eccentricity at which the visual stimuli were presented, influencing both the accuracy of targets' perception and participants' reaction times.

Keywords: ADAS | Attention | Emotions | Virtual reality

Abstract: As the Metaverse gains popularity due to its use in various industries, so does the desire to take advantage of all its potential. While visual and audio technologies already provide access to the Metaverse, there is increasing interest in haptic and olfactory technologies, which are less developed and have been studied for a shorter time. Currently, there are limited options for users to experience the olfactory aspect of the Metaverse. This paper introduces an open-source kit that makes it simple to add the sense of smell to the Metaverse. The solution is modular, allowing for the simultaneous use of multiple odors and compatibility with both desktop and wearable applications. The details of the solution, including its technical specifications, are outlined to enable potential users to utilize, test, and enhance the project and make it available to the scientific community.

Keywords: Metaverse | olfactory display | smell | virtual and augmented reality environments

Abstract: In the last couple of decades, the research on 3D facial expression recognition has been fostered by the creation of tailored databases containing prototypical expressions of different individuals and by the advances in cost effective acquisition technologies. Though, most of the currently available databases consist of exaggerated facial expressions, due to the imitation principle which they rely on. This makes these databases only partially employable for real world applications such as human-computer interaction for smart products and environments, health, and industry 4.0, as algorithms learn on these ‘inflated' data which do not respond to ecological validity requirements. In this work, we present two novel 2D + 3D spontaneous facial expression databases of young adults with different geographical origin, in which emotions have been evoked thanks to affective images of the acknowledged IAPS and GAPED databases, and verified with participants' self-reports. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first three-dimensional facial databases with emotions elicited by validated affective stimuli.

Keywords: 3D facial expression | Affective database | Ecological validity | Facial expression recognition | Human-computer interaction | Spontaneous expressions

Abstract: Companies face the pressing challenge of bridging the skills gap caused by relentless technological progress and high worker turnover rates, necessitating continuous investment in upskilling and reskilling initiatives. Virtual reality (VR) is already used in training programs. However, despite its advantages, the authoring time for creating and customizing virtual environments often makes using this technology not completely convenient. This article proposes an architecture that aims to facilitate the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) assistance into VR training environments to improve user engagement and reduce authoring effort. The proposed architecture was tested in a study that compared a virtual training session with and without a digital assistant powered by AI. Results indicate comparable levels of usability and perceived workload between the two conditions, with higher performance satisfaction in the assisted condition.

Abstract: Stroke affects approximately fifteen million people worldwide annually, with impaired hand function being one of its most common effects. Hemiparetic post-stroke patients suffer a mild loss of strength involving one side of their body: though not fully debilitating, it still impacts their everyday life activities. To prevent mobility deterioration, patients must perform well-focused and repetitive exercises during chronic rehabilitation. Virtual Reality (VR) emerges as an interesting tool in this framework, offering the possibility of training and measuring the patient's performances in ecologically valid, engaging, and challenging environments. In recent years, there has been an increasing diffusion of accessible head-mounted displays that enhance the sense of realism and immersion in a virtual scene. To explore the feasibility and efficacy of VR immersion and game mechanics in rehabilitation programs, a VR system that allows users to rehabilitate their motor skills in a home-based environment has been designed and tested considering standard measures related to usability, immersion, workload, and simulator sickness, and with the involvement of rehabilitation experts. The results demonstrate how users and experts have received the application positively, highlighting the potential of VR applications for the future development of home-based rehabilitation programs.

Keywords: Exergames | Post-Stroke Rehabilitation | Virtual Reality

Abstract: Mood and emotion are considered distinct phenomena, yet there is a general lack of consensus within the scientific community concerning their definition. Leveraging on a physiology-based definition of these phenomena and their relation, we propose a concept design to define a real-time real-world positive mood supporting application. In particular, the application will be provided through wearable and portable devices, and comprise different blocks related to the user profiling, the identification of proper mood stimuli based on the users' responses, and a mood detection system.

Keywords: Ecological momentary assessment | Emotion recognition | Mood detection | Wearable sensors

Abstract: The increasing interest in technologies such as Metaverse, Augmented Reality (AR), and Artificial Intelligence (AI) opens up numerous possibilities that have the potential to shape our daily experiences in the future. We investigated how integrating today's popular chatbots and multisensory AR technologies can create personalized museum visiting experiences. The paper outlines the concept of a digital assistant-based application for museum visits. The visitor, equipped with AR technology, can ask questions about the exhibits and receive precise and contextually relevant answers from the digital assistant who can virtually appear as an avatar with accompanying multimedia AR information. In the paper, we describe the implementation of a prototype of the application.

Keywords: Augmented Reality | Chatbots | Metaverse | Museums

Abstract: The challenges of sustainable development require a consistent transformation of decision-making practices in society and in the industry. In this regard, Virtual Reality (VR) is an effective tool, providing experiences that are not accessible in the real world. The overview effect is a feeling of interconnectedness and responsibility towards our planet and its inhabitants described by astronauts after seeing the Earth during spaceflights. We present a VR application merging the overview effect with data visualization. We illustrate the design process and perform a pilot test to assess the emotions raised by the VR experience. Furthermore, we report feedback from design engineering and sustainability experts discussing the applications' potential in decision-making contexts, including product development processes.

Keywords: Decision making | Emotional design | Human behaviour in design | Sustainability | Virtual reality

Abstract: We describe the design of a modular sensorized climbing wall for motion analysis in a naturalistic environment. The wall is equipped with force sensors to measure interaction forces between the athlete and the wall, which can be used by experienced instructors, athletes, or therapists, to gain insights into the quality of motion. A specifically designed triaxial load cell is integrated into each hold placement, invisible to the climber, and compatible with standard climbing holds. Data collected through the sensors is sent to an app running on a portable device. The wall can be adapted to different uses. To validate our design, we recorded a repeated climbing activity of eleven climbers with varying degrees of expertise. Analysis of the interaction forces during the exercise demonstrates that the sensor network design can provide valuable information to track and analyze exercise performance changes over time. Here we report the design process as well as the validation and testing of the sensorized climbing wall.

Keywords: instrumented climbing hold | motion analysis | performance | sensors | sport climbing

Abstract: Nowadays, industrial training is gaining popularity, and in particular, Virtual Reality (VR) technologies are often adopted to recreate training experiences that can transform the learning process by exploiting the concept of learning by doing. Moreover, VR allows us to recreate realistic and immersive environments that provide trainees with hands-on experience in a safe and controlled setting. One of the advantages of using VR technologies to perform training simulations lies in the ability that these tools offer to mix different senses as if they were independent variables and to manipulate them one at a time. In this way, the effects of using one sense on the specific task under analysis can be discovered in a controlled scenario in which the others are controlled. One of the least used senses in VR is undoubtedly that of smell. In this paper, we intend to use a new olfactory device specifically designed to be adopted with VR technologies, integrate it with an immersive VR training application, and propose a series of uses allowed by this combination. In the paper, we report the details of the multisensory approach that integrates the different senses. Additionally, the paper presents the findings of a pilot experiment conducted to validate the adopted approach and assess the results. The study demonstrates that the developed Olfactory Display had no adverse impact on users' interaction with VR content.

Keywords: Olfactory Display | Virtual Reality | Virtual Training

Abstract: Modern driver-assist and monitoring systems are severely limited by the lack of a precise understanding of how humans localize and predict the position of neighboring road users. Virtual Reality (VR) is a cost-efficient means to investigate these matters. However, human perception works differently in reality and in immersive virtual environments, with visible differences even between different VR environments. Therefore, when exploring human perception, the relevant perceptive parameters should first be characterized in the specific VR environment. In this paper,we report the results of two experiments that were designed to assess localization and prediction accuracy of static and moving visual targets in a VR setup developed using broadly available hardware and software solutions. Results of the first experiment provide a reference measure of the significant effect that distance and eccentricity have on localization error for static visual targets, while the second experiment shows the effect of time variables and contextual information on the localization accuracy of moving targets. These results provide a solid basis to test in VR the effects of different ergonomics and driver-vehicle interaction designs on perception accuracy.

Abstract: In the era of ‘metaverse', virtual environments are gaining popularity among new multimedia contents and are also recognized as a valuable means to deliver emotional content. This is favoured by cost reduction, availability and acceptance by end-users of virtual reality technology. Creating effective virtual environments can be achieved by exploiting several opportunities: creating artificial worlds able to generate different stories, mixing sensory cues, and making the whole interactive. The design space for creating emotional virtual environments is ample, and no clear idea of how to integrate the various components exists. This paper discusses how to combine multiple design elements to elicit five distinct emotions. We developed and tested two scenarios per emotion. We present the methodology, the development of the case studies, and the results of the testing.

Keywords: Affective Virtual Reality | Design Methodology | Emotions | Metaverse | Virtual Reality

Abstract: Despite the great potential of Virtual Reality (VR) to arouse emotions, there are no VR affective databases available as it happens for pictures, videos, and sounds. In this paper, we describe the validation of ten affective interactive Virtual Environments (VEs) designed to be used in Virtual Reality. These environments are related to five emotions. The testing phase included using two different experimental setups to deliver the overall experience. The setup did not include any immersive VR technology, because of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, but the VEs were designed to run on stereoscopic visual displays. We collected measures related to the participants' emotional experience based on six discrete emotional categories plus neutrality and we included an assessment of the sense of presence related to the different experiences. The results showed how the scenarios can be differentiated according to the emotion aroused. Finally, the comparison between the two experimental setups demonstrated high reliability of the experience and strong adaptability of the scenarios to different contexts of use.

Abstract: In the published article, there was an error regarding the affiliation(s) for Dario Pittera. Instead of having affiliation(s) **2,3,4**, they should only have **2,4**. The authors apologize for this error and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.

Keywords: multisensory | smell | sound | virtual reality | visuospatial attention

Abstract: When interacting with technology, attention is mainly driven by audiovisual and increasingly haptic stimulation. Olfactory stimuli are widely neglected, although the sense of smell influences many of our daily life choices, affects our behavior, and can catch and direct our attention. In this study, we investigated the effect of smell and sound on visuospatial attention in a virtual environment. We implemented the Bells Test, an established neuropsychological test to assess attentional and visuospatial disorders, in virtual reality (VR). We conducted an experiment with 24 participants comparing the performance of users under three experimental conditions (smell, sound, and smell and sound). The results show that multisensory stimuli play a key role in driving the attention of the participants and highlight asymmetries in directing spatial attention. We discuss the relevance of the results within and beyond human-computer interaction (HCI), particularly with regard to the opportunity of using VR for rehabilitation and assessment procedures for patients with spatial attention deficits.

Keywords: multisensory | smell | sound | virtual reality | visuospatial attention

Abstract: Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms, together with a general increased computational performance, allow nowadays exploring the use of Facial Expression Recognition (FER) as a method of recognizing human emotion through the use of neural networks. The interest in facial emotion and expression recognition in real-life situations is one of the current cutting-edge research challenges. In this context, the creation of an ecologically valid facial expression database is crucial. To this aim, a controlled experiment has been designed, in which thirty-five subjects aged 18–35 were asked to react spontaneously to a set of 48 validated images from two affective databases, IAPS and GAPED. According to the Self-Assessment Manikin, participants were asked to rate images on a 9-points visual scale on valence and arousal. Furthermore, they were asked to select one of the six Ekman's basic emotions. During the experiment, an RGB-D camera was also used to record spontaneous facial expressions aroused in participants storing both the color and the depth frames to feed a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to perform FER. In every case, the prevalent emotion pointed out in the questionnaires matched with the expected emotion. CNN obtained a recognition rate of 75.02%, computed comparing the neural network results with the evaluations given by a human observer. These preliminary results have confirmed that this experimental setting is an effective starting point for building an ecologically valid database.

Keywords: 3D facial database | Affective database | Basic emotions | Ecologically-valid data | Facial expression recognition | Human-robot interaction

Abstract: Computer graphics is-in many cases-about visualizing what you cannot see. However, virtual reality (VR), from its beginnings, aimed at stimulating all human senses: not just the visual channel. Moreover, this set of multisensory stimuli allows users to feel present and able to interact with the virtual environment. In this way, VR aims to deliver experiences that are comparable to real-life ones in their level of detail and stimulation, intensity, and impact. Hence, VR is not only a means to see, but also to feel differently. With the spreading of VR technologies, there is a growing interest in using VR to evoke emotions, including positive and negative ones. This article discusses the current possibilities and the authors' experience collected in the field in trying to elicit emotions through VR. It explores how different design aspects and features can be used, describing their contributions and benefits in the development of affective VR experiences. This work aims at raising awareness of the necessity to consider and explore the full design space that VR technology provides in comparison to traditional media. Additionally, it provides possible tracks of VR affective applications, illustrating how they could impact our emotions and improve our life, and providing guidelines for their development.

Abstract: The aim of this work is to present an algorithm used to perform an energetic analysis for an electric vehicle in a Virtual Reality (VR) scenario. This was useful to recognize some patterns of driving behavior considering users and their psychological aspects. The primary aspect enlightened is the description of the experimental setup used to perform tests with 26 users. Through Unity and Matlab software, it was possible to exploit a VR scenario aimed at recreating in the same route both urban and highway paths in condition of real traffic, performed with a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV). The acquisition part is illustrated in its methodology in two different cases covering disturbance and non-disturbance scenario. Moreover, the population was divided considering gender to establish a characterization which linked energy consumption and associated analysis to psychological traits of the driver.

Keywords: Battery electric Vehicle | dnving behavior | Electric vehicle | energy consumption | psychological aspects | virtual reality