Virtual and augmented reality

Digitalization represents a strategic enabler of innovation in industrial processes, particularly within complex and safety-critical domains. In the transition toward Industry 4.0, Augmented Reality (AR) demonstrates considerable potential to reshape work organization by enhancing efficiency and ensuring higher product quality. AR technologies can provide operators with context-aware instructions, interactive visual guidance, and improved operational control during cognitive and technically demanding tasks, such as electrical wiring assembly in the aerospace sector. To investigate the actual potential of video see-through devices, a dedicated AR application was developed for Meta Quest 3. The case study encompassed the digitization of technical documentation, the integration of three-dimensional models, and the design of an interactive User Interface (UI). The Usability of the application and its impact on Cognitive Load (CL) were assessed through controlled laboratory experiments involving two groups: one employing Meta Quest 3 and the other relying on conventional paper-based documentation. The results provide empirical evidence on the practical relevance and limitations of video see-through AR in supporting assembly operations. Specifically, the study revealed that the video see-through mode of Meta Quest 3 presents certain limitations and imposes a higher CL on users, although it also elicited high levels of user satisfaction regarding the use of AR technology. These results underscore the necessity of further optimizing AR hardware and interaction design to mitigate cognitive demands, while confirming the promising role of AR in advancing industrial training and assembly processes.

Keywords: Assistive technologies , Augmented reality , Ergonomics , Human factor , Usability assessment , Video see-through

Random goods inspections are a critical component of customs operations, ensuring that imported and exported goods comply with relevant regulations. Currently, these inspections rely on manual efforts by operators, making them susceptible to delays and increased costs, often attributed to \"human errors\". This paper shifts the narrative from “human errors” to “human factors”, emphasizing the role of cognitive and operational challenges in inspection tasks. We introduce “Virtual Storage Assistant”, a wearable Augmented Reality tool designed to enhance the efficiency and accuracy of customs inspections. By leveraging Augmented Reality, the proposed system aims to bridge the gap between: (1) the required performance standards for the inspection process, and (2) the specific cognitive abilities and skills of customs workers, thereby streamlining operations and reducing associated inefficiencies.

Keywords: Augmented reality , Cognitive ergonomics , Customs inspection , Human error , Human factors

The present work focuses on the use of Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) to train users by immersing them in safe and controlled Virtual Environment (VE) and enabling them to learn by doing. Particular attention is given to adaptive VR-training systems that are capable of dynamically adjusting the training experience based on user's performance and cognitive state. Considering this, a new methodology for such systems is proposed, that is crafted on the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML). This methodology aims to help instructors to understand how to adapt VR-training systems to users during their experience in VEs, leading to effective Learning Outcomes and avoiding a high Cognitive Load (CL). This human factor plays a critical role in mediating the relationship between Presence, Immersion, and Learning Outcomes, as the VE generates a CL to users. To have a deeper understanding, factors influencing CL in VEs are presented and relative solutions are proposed. It is our understanding that adaptive VR-training systems, their design, architecture, and attributes, can pave the way to new research directions and that the new methodology presented in this paper will be supportive.

Keywords: Adaptive VR-training system , Cognitive load , Human factors , Learning outcomes , Virtual reality

Extended Reality (XR) and the Metaverse play a transformative role in the future of work, making it essential to introduce them within educational contexts. However, widespread adoption is often hindered by teachers' reliance on traditional methodologies and limited exposure to emerging digital tools. To address this challenge, a theoretical literacy course was delivered at a local high school, involving 92 teachers, to foster a foundational understanding and confidence in the use of XR and the Metaverse for teaching purposes. Data collected through demographic surveys and self-assessment items revealed a statistically significant increase in familiarity and trust toward these technologies following the course. While no significant changes were noted in technological competence or general interest, positive trends were observed in reduced insecurity and a more positive perception toward their adoption. Teacher feedback emphasized the need for practical sessions to complement theoretical training. These results underscore the importance of ongoing teacher development not only to improve digital skills but also to ensure that students are meaningfully exposed to the technologies that will shape their future professional environments. The approach proposed in this study offers a scalable model for educational institutions seeking to integrate XR and Metaverse technologies as complementary enhancements to traditional teaching methods.

Keywords: Digital transformation , Education , Extended Reality , Improving classroom teaching , Metaverse

In response to the global concern over road traffic accidents, particularly among young drivers, there is increasing interest in innovative educational interventions to promote safer driving behaviors. Traditional media campaigns often fail to engage audiences meaningfully. This study, part of a broader research initiative, investigates the effects of Cinematic Virtual Reality (CVR) on participants' physiological responses, specifically focusing on heart rate variability, to assess the effectiveness of fear-based and positive reinforcement scenarios influencing road safety behaviors. A custom-developed CVR application delivered immersive 360° driving scenarios, one based on fear and the other on positive reinforcement, via a Meta Quest 2 headset. A total of 95 participants, aged 18 to 24 and all holding valid driver's licenses, were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions. The study assessed the impact of these approaches on participants' physiological responses by recording electrocardiogram (ECG) data using the BioSignalPlux system. HRV parameters, indicators of stress and arousal, were analyzed to distinguish the physiological effects of the two scenarios. Time-domain, frequency-domain, and nonlinear HRV features were extracted and used for classification. Machine learning algorithms were employed to evaluate the system's performance in differentiating between the two experimental groups. The classification accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity were assessed using 10-fold cross-validation. Results showed that Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) achieved the highest classification accuracy.

Keywords: Cinematic Virtual Reality , Machine Learning Approach , Physiological Parameters

The effective use of avatars in 3D virtual stores is a critical component of the success of virtual retail. However, there is a lack of established guidelines on avatar design, an overview of its impact, and its limitations. This work aims to fill these gaps with a scoping review of avatar usage in immersive virtual retail in the last 8 years. Starting with an initial 243 publications, we selected and analysed nine studies to propose the original Virtual Retail Avatar Design (VRAD) framework, as well as investigate the impact avatars have on user's perceptions, experiences, and behaviors in immersive virtual retail environment. The VRAD framework revealed the key elements of the avatar design to achieve more engaging and effective virtual shopping experiences. We also summarized the avatar's impact on shopper behaviour, perception, and experience in the iVR retail environment and the future research agenda of avatars in iVR retail. We believe our work can be extended from retail to related areas where avatars play a key role in their further evolution.

Keywords: Avatar Design , Immersive Virtual Reality , Scoping Review , Shopping Experience , Virtual Retail

Extended Reality (XR) faces adoption barriers in professional workspaces, a challenge beyond mere technical limitations. This position paper discusses that an underestimated limitation could be Visual Dissonance: a fundamental conflict between the consumer-grade aesthetics of many XR systems and the established visual culture of professional workspaces. This dissonance may undermine XR credibility and trigger user distrust, an issue that traditional technology acceptance models are not adequately able to capture. As contribution, we discuss theoretical backgrounds and speculate methodological solutions for achieving Visual Acceptance, which requires the development of a Native Visual Language for professional workspaces XR based on: (1) Visual User-Centered Design to respect professional aesthetic boundaries; (2) the formulation of a Native Visual Language that leverages XR's unique spatial affordances instead of replicating 2D paradigms; and (3) Dynamic Visual Scaling, a method for contextually adapting visual formality. By defining this agenda, this paper aims to shift the research focus from purely technical optimization toward a design-centric approach, paving the way for the validation of adaptive visual systems and the establishment of new metrics for long-term XR adoption in workspaces.

Keywords: Acceptance , Dissonance , Extended Reality , Visual design , Workspaces

The literature has demonstrated the advantages of Mixed Reality (MR) for product configuration by providing a more engaging and effective end-user experience. While collaborative and remote design tools in MR have been widely explored in previous studies, a noticeable gap remains in the exploration of co-located product configuration for couples. This gap is noteworthy since in many industries, couples (e.g., friends, partners) often make purchasing decisions together in physical retail environments. In this paper, we introduce MR-CoCo, an open MR testbed designed to explore collaborative configurations by co-located couples, both in the role of customers. The testbed is developed in Unity and features: (i) a shared MR space with virtual product 3D model anchoring, (ii) shared visualization of the current configuration, (iii) a versatile UI for selecting configuration areas, (iv) hand gestures for 3D drag and drop of colors and materials from 3D catalog to the product. A case study of the personalization of a sailboat is provided as proof of concept. The user study involved 24 couples (48 participants in total), simulating a purchasing experience and the related configuration using MR-CoCo. We assessed usability through post-experience evaluations, with the System Usability Scale (SUS) and the Co-Presence Configuration Questionnaire (CCQ) to measure collaboration and decision-making. The results demonstrated a high level of usability and perceived quality of collaboration. We also explore guidelines that can be used for remote collaboration applications, enabling configuration across a wide range of industries (e.g., automotive and clothing).

Keywords: co-located , co-presence , collaboration , mixed reality , multi-user , Product configuration , user study

A wide range of tools, machines from diverse industries are operated by the precise rotation of physical devices (e.g., knobs, encoders). Literature proved that Mixed Reality can provide rotation guidance by superimposing digital cues onto the real environment. However, existing studies primarily focus on speed rather than precision and lack proven solutions with standard comparison methods. We presented a novel open MR testbed to evaluate MR rotation guidance cue designs. It comprises (i) a 3D-printed structure with a controller mount for MR cue tracking, (ii) an industrial encoder (resolution 1.8°), (iii) an Esp32 microcontroller, (iv) a firmware for USB connection, and (v) a USB foot pedal to confirm rotation, (vi) test software and documentation. The testbed uses available off-the-shelf components, and it is distributed with an open source license, Unity package with cues examples and scripts for running tests with randomized targets and collecting performance data (error count and speed). We evaluated the MR testbed by comparing the Arrow cue (baseline) and two novel designs: Magnifier with a zoomed region and Gestalt leveraging related perception principles. A within-subjects study (N=36,180′′, 18 , M=27.58, ± 3.55) showed that the Magnifier is the most precise (p<.001), while the Gestalt is the fastest (p<.001). Moreover, males (higher motor and gaming skills) (p<.002, t=3.89) resulted in faster (r=-0.458, p<. 005). Participants who declared with higher gaming skills demonstrated less task load during the experiment (r=+0.548, p<.005). Overall, the participants slightly preferred the Gestalt (18) over the Magnifier (15), while the Arrow was selected by a few (3). Ultimately, the testbed has proven to be an effective research and evaluation platform for future mixed reality interfaces.

Keywords: cues , human-computer interaction , Mixed reality , precise input , rotation guidance , testbed

We present MoodRoom, an accessible tool for designing digital spaces through an immersive Moodboard-Inspired Configurator. By integrating (i) real-time ambient control, (ii) playful configuration functions (color paint brush, throwable Texture Orbs, foot-based pavement material changer), and (iii) 3D teleporting navigation, it also fosters non-expert designers' creative flow, emotional exploration, and decision-making. We propose an interior design case study, comparing with a N = 32 within-subjects user test in VR setups-MoodRoom to a Default 2D GUI configurator as baseline. We assessed the emotional responses using PANAS metric. Results based on user feedback indicate that MoodRoom significantly increases creative flow and positive affect. This work succeeds in inspiring the development of more accessible, creative and engaging tools for immersive worlds authoring for the emerging metaverse and retail platforms, where non-expert users can also become digital content creators or simply to better configure their own spaces and products.

Keywords: 3D authoring , accessible content creation , interior design , mixed reality , moodboard

Structural deviations are atypical patterns known in environmental psychology literature to cause discomfort in physical spaces, however their impact on user perception within immersive virtual remains under-explored. Therefore, this work contributes by exploring how Structural deviations (Void, Defeatured, Symmetry, Repetition, Displacement, Big, Small, Presence) known in literature disrupt the Plausibility Illusion (PI the sense that virtual space seem real) and Place Illusion (Psi the feeling of being present). We designed two Metaverse inspired case studies: outdoor city avenue and an indoor pub, both with nine scenes each implanted by a single structural deviation. We ran a mixed-methods user study (N=46), in which participants were assigned to a Metaverse (between-subjects). All viewed a baseline, then several counterbalanced SDs (within-subjects), rating perceived realism (for PI) and uncanniness (for breaches of Psi). Statistical analysis (RM-ANOVA, Bonferroni) showed that all Structural Deviations significantly increased uncanniness and weakened Psi (p ≤.001). Only Displacement and Big significantly reduced PI, with GLM identifying them as the strongest predictors of uncanniness. This work showcased how Structural deviations can be used as deliberate design choices to affect significantly the user experience, and how further studies in perception theory are needed to further explore designers' tools for crafting next-gen IVEs.

Keywords: Metaverse , Place Illusion , Plausibility Illusion , Structural Deviations , Virtual Environments

Due to the growing adoption of Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) in various contexts, understanding how virtual workspaces impact humans and how they should be designed is crucial. Exploring optimal design strategies that can enhance well-being within IVR environments becomes important. In real contexts, biophilic design offers a way to improve well-being by introducing natural elements. IVR can go beyond real-world constraints for integrating biophilic elements, but this aspect is scarcely addressed in literature. A valuable assistance to support the design of IVR workspaces could be offered by generative Artificial Intelligence (AI), which is becoming increasingly integrated into everyday life. The aim of this work is twofold: (i) assessing if the biophilic design of IVR workspaces can improve human well-being and (ii) investigating if AI can inspire the biophilic design properly. Thus, we conducted a user study comparing psycho-physiological and subjective metrics in three conditions. A workspace without biophilia was used as a baseline. The same was enriched with two biophilic designs: one suggested by expert designers and another inspired by AI-generated graphics, simulating a not-expert developer. The findings showed that both biophilic designs significantly improved well-being; however, AI suggestions led to a reduced sense of presence in the IVR environment.

Keywords: Biophilic Design , generative artificial intelligence , industry 5.0 , Virtual Reality , well-being

Industry 5.0 (I5.0) emphasizes the importance of humans in modern manufacturing, particularly the need for efficient human-machine interaction. However, current design processes often neglect human factors in the early stages of machine design. Despite the growing recognition of human-centered design (HCD), existing methodologies still lack integrated solutions that fully leverage digital technologies for usability testing in industrial machines. As a result, traditional design and testing approaches remain rigid, limiting the potential of simulation in capturing complex human-machine interactions. This forces designers to rely on incomplete data, often leading to machines optimized for performance but lacking the usability needed for seamless human operation. This paper presents an innovative system that integrates humans into the design phase through two interconnected applications: a Virtual Reality (VR) application, where it is possible to interact with the machine digital model, and a desktop application that mimics the human-machine interface (HMI) to simulate operations on the machine. The two applications are synchronized and allow real-time interaction between the HMI and the virtual machine, enabling a human-centric virtual commissioning and testing of procedures that involve both the physical machine and the HMI. This approach enables iterative refinements before physical prototyping, reducing development costs while enhancing operational efficiency. By combining immersive engagement with the virtual machine and HMI simulation, it facilitates iterative refinements before physical prototyping, optimizing human-machine interaction and ensuring user-centered solutions. The industrial case study demonstrates the potential benefits of the proposed toolkit to optimize machine design according to I5.0 principles, improving both safety and usability.

Keywords: Human-Centered design , Human-Machine interaction (HMI) , Industry 5.0 , Machine design optimization , Virtual commissioning , Virtual reality

Optical tool tracking is the process of determining the 6DoF pose of an object in real time using visual sensor streams and image processing algorithms. It enables spatial localization in applications such as robotics, medical imaging, augmented reality, and precision manufacturing. However, existing solutions often involve tight coupling between hardware and software, complicating the management and benchmarking of different tracking systems. This paper presents the Modular Optical Tool Tracking (MOTT) framework, a unified platform for implementing, integrating, and benchmarking optical tracking solutions. A requirement-based design approach was adopted, using Quality Function Deployment (QFD) to systematically derive technical features and identify design drivers that guided the architecture of the framework. The resulting software framework standardizes the concept of an optical tracking method, featuring a flexible and extensible architecture based on object-oriented principles. Two marker-based tracking methods using an RGB camera as video source were evaluated through the developed framework. The presented case studies showcased the use of the framework for method implementation and comparison within a unified pipeline, reporting computational metrics such as frame rate, CPU and memory usage, and providing pose visualizations. The proposed framework enables standardized evaluation and benchmarking of optical tracking systems, and provides a foundation for future extensions involving non-optical tracking modalities and large-scale comparative studies. The implementation is openly available at https://github.com/tooltip-optical-tracking/mott-framework.

Keywords: Benchmarking , Modular framework , Optical tracking , Pose estimation , QFD , Tool tracking

Extended reality (XR) technologies, including augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), and virtual reality (VR), are increasingly transforming surgical disciplines. Oral and maxillofacial surgery, given the anatomical complexity and precision required, is particularly suited to benefit from these innovations. The aim of this scoping review was to map the clinical applications of XR in oral and maxillofacial surgery and compare the most commonly used commercial headsets. A comprehensive literature search was performed across the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, covering studies published between January 2018 and June 2025. The PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed. Overall, 759 records were identified in the database and subsequent citation search, of which 90 met the predefined inclusion criteria. The studies were categorized based on the type of application: training, preoperative planning, virtual surgical planning (VSP), and intraoperative guidance. The analysis revealed that AR and MR are predominantly employed in intraoperative procedures, enhancing surgical navigation and precision. In contrast, fully immersive VR is primarily employed in training, preoperative simulation, and VSP, while its adoption in the postoperative phase remains a promising area for future exploration. XR technologies hold significant potential in oral and maxillofacial surgery and are evolving rapidly and diversifying in their applications. Further research and regulatory validation are needed to support clinical integration and evaluate long-term outcomes.

Keywords: Augmented reality , Maxillofacial surgery , Mixed reality , Oral surgery , Virtual reality

Given the relative success of both anthropomorphism and biophilic interventions in automated vehicles, the aim of this study was to compare these two interventions within a simulated driving scenario. A within-subjects study design was employed, in which 30 participants experienced both interventions in addition to a 4-minute baseline driving session. The biophilic intervention was presented in a mixed reality environment, while the anthropomorphic intervention was delivered via a humanoid robot. To ensure the comparability of intervention levels, both interventions were intentionally designed to be superficial rather than deep. Statistical analyses including ANOVA, t-tests, and Wilcoxon tests were conducted to compare trust, stress, user experience, and mental workload indicators. The results showed that although both interventions slightly increased mental workload and, to some extent, stress compared to the baseline condition (with no statistically significant difference), they led to an improvement in affective trust relative to the baseline. The comparison of participants' user experience indicated that the anthropomorphic intervention was perceived as more practical (higher pragmatic quality), whereas the biophilic intervention was experienced as more enjoyable and exciting (higher hedonic quality). The use of interventions such as anthropomorphizing the vehicle or incorporating natural elements into interfaces can partially address the issue of trust in autonomous vehicles. However, further studies are needed to compare each of these approaches both in simulators and on test tracks in real-world environments. At present, these results should be interpreted with caution.

Keywords: Anthropomorphism , Automated vehicle , Biophilia , Driving workload , Human-AV interaction , User Experience

Nowadays, production systems increasingly need to be reconfigured to cope with unforeseen disruptions in workflows or supply chains, dynamic market requirements and mass personalisation. Industry 4.0 technologies, through Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPS), offer opportunities to address these challenges by enabling real-Time monitoring and adaptive control to manage dynamic environments and requirements. With the advent of Industry 5.0, which emphasizes human-centric production, Human-Cyber-Physical Systems (HCPS) integrate operators into decision-making loops, enhancing flexibility, resilience, and responsiveness. A key requirement for these systems is reconfigurability, which involves identifying reconfiguration needs, planning actions, and executing them. Although the initial two steps are occasionally automated to some extent, the execution phase is predominantly manual, leading to inefficiencies, higher workloads, and increased risk of errors. Enabling technologies of Industry 5.0, such as Extended Reality, offer new opportunities to overcome these challenges. This work, therefore, introduces a Mixed Reality-based framework that guides and assists operators in performing industrial tasks. The framework is developed following established guidelines from the literature and relevant industrial standards, and it adopts a modular and expandable architecture that facilitates the integration of new functionalities and use cases. The approach is implemented and validated through a case study on the execution of the reconfiguration process in a real-world production line within a research platform. A preliminary evaluation using the NASA-TLX indicates that the MR application reduces workload, mainly through improved performance and lower frustration.

Keywords: CPPS , Humancentric design , Mixed Reality , Operator guidance , Reconfiguration

Extended Reality (XR), combining Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), is transforming human-machine interaction in manufacturing by facilitating complex system design and operator training. Traditionally, VR and AR have been utilised separately-VR for virtual simulations and validation, and AR for on-site assistance. Training operators in modern manufacturing (Operator 5.0) demands integrated approaches that merge virtual scenarios with real-world applications, enhancing learning outcomes and user experience (UX). The PROXIMA project introduces an integrated XR platform designed explicitly for Operator 5.0 training, combining VR and AR into a seamless, collaborative environment. PROXIMA addresses technological and educational gaps by enabling smooth interaction between physical and virtual contexts through spatially aware multimedia content generated in AR and used within immersive VR scenarios. The platform's usability and educational effectiveness were assessed through a structured pilot study involving 35 apprentices, utilising the System Usability Scale (SUS) and qualitative feedback. Results indicated strong usability (average SUS score of 73.2), high participant engagement, improved procedural knowledge, and positive educational outcomes. User feedback informed system enhancements, particularly for AR content creation and VR navigation. PROXIMA thus significantly advances integrated XR training solutions, effectively bridging technological innovation and pedagogical practice within Industry 5.0.

Keywords: Extended reality , Operator 5.0 , Proximity , User experience , Virtual training

Biophilic design, which emphasizes integrating natural elements into built environments, is increasingly valued for its positive impact on workplace well-being and productivity. This study investigates how extended reality (XR) technologies can support biophilic design by incorporating digital representations of plants into immersive virtual and augmented workspaces. Central to this research is the evaluation of methods for generating realistic and adaptable digital plants suitable for XR integration, focusing on balancing visual quality, flexibility, and usability. Photogrammetry, a technique that creates detailed 3D models by combining photographs from multiple angles, is explored for its potential to quickly produce high-resolution digital plant assets. Despite its advantages, photogrammetry struggles with rendering fine details, such as delicate branches and leaves, limiting its effectiveness in XR settings. To address these shortcomings, the study compares photogrammetry with procedural modeling — a rapidly evolving approach supported by several tools. Procedural modeling offers enhanced precision, control, and adaptability, enabling dynamic, real-time modifications and interactions in virtual environments. The research highlights how technological innovations can advance biophilic design by enabling the seamless integration of natural elements into digital workspaces. Through comparative analysis, the paper identifies optimal strategies for creating immersive, well-being-focused environments that align with the principles of biophilic design. Ultimately, this study illustrates the potential of XR to transform workplace design by merging nature-inspired elements with cutting-edge digital tools, fostering environments that support both human and organizational productivity.

Keywords: Biophilic design , Digital plants , Extended reality (XR) , Photogrammetry , Procedural modeling

The importance of training for operators in industrial contexts is widely highlighted in literature. Virtual Reality (VR) is considered an efficient solution for training, since it provides immersive, realistic, and interactive simulations environments promoting a learn-by-doing approach, far from the risks of the real field. Its efficacy has been demonstrated by several studies, but a proper assessment of the operator's cognitive response in terms of stress and cognitive load during the use of such technology is still lacking. This paper proposes an integrated methodology for the analysis of user's cognitive states, suitable for each kind of training in the industrial sector and beyond, fostering the human-centred design and manufacturing perspective. The methodology has been assessed using an industrial case study where virtual training is used for assembly of agricultural vehicles. Experimental results highlighted that, with VR additional supportive information, while operators' errors drastically decrease, the stress increases for complex tasks, due to the greater amount of information to manage. The proposed protocol allows understanding the operators' cognitive conditions in order to optimize the VR training application, avoiding operators' stress, mental overload, and improving performance.

Keywords: cognitive ergonomics , mental workload , stress , virtual assembly , Virtual reality , virtual training