Virtual and augmented reality

Background: Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) training is a crucial component of workplace safety. In recent years, Cross-reality (XR) has emerged as a viable path for immersive and successful training experiences. This paper presents preliminary results from the SCISSOR project, a groundbreaking initiative exploring the potential of XR technologies in enhancing OHS training, especially in healthcare setting regarding ionization radiation exposure. Materials and methods: This quasi-experimental pilot study consisted of several stages from July 2021 to June 2022. Phase 1 consists of the realization of the virtual scenario, Phase 2 in XR setting up and laboratory simulation, and lastly, and Phase 3 based on the on field testing. Results: About 60 participants, including students and researchers, participated in Phases 1 and 2 preliminary testing and 9 healthcare workers (HCWs) in Phase 3. Phase 1 involved the 3D reconstruction of a real-life scenario using digital photogrammetry. These models were then utilized to recreate the operating room scenario and program interactions with the equipment. In Phase 2, the overall appreciation for the level of realism, comfort, and usability of the application was investigated. The test results demonstrated a general appreciation for the application and its effectiveness. Phase 3, concerning field tests, involved HCWs. The results suggest that XR technologies hold significant promise in revolutionizing OHS training, offering a more engaging, effective, and adaptable approach to workplace safety education.

Keywords: Cross-reality , Ionizing radiation , Occupational health and safety , Operating room , Training

Stress is a reaction that occurs when a person perceives, with or without awareness, an imbalance between requests and available resources. Relying on this definition, we have carried out an experiment in a Virtual Reality environment to elicit (light) stress in the user and analyze the emotional responses with electroencephalography (EEG). The virtual environment is divided in eight parts; in each of them a stressor has been put in action, meaning that in every part the participants perform a task, but a specific resource is missing (time, knowledge, control, salvation, no or too many alternatives, engagement, self-confidence). EEG is used to assess the emotional response with the aid of Valence/Arousal/Dominance/Stress indicators presented in previous literature. Nine indicators calculated for 87 participants, labeled according to self-assessment replies (post-experimental questionnaires), were classified with eXtreme Gradient Boosting, k-Nearest Neighbor, Support Vector Machine and Random Forest classifiers.

Keywords: Affective computing , EEG , Emotion assessment , Machine learning , Stress , Virtual reality

The Industry 5.0 approach moves towards a sustainable, human-centric and adaptable manufacturing within companies, with a philosophy focused on meeting human needs and supporting societal values through the entire production process. Human–Robot Collaboration (HRC) emerges as a pivotal aspect of Industry 5.0, aiming to integrate robots and artificial intelligence seamlessly into workplaces alongside human workers. This integration presents challenges and opportunities for redefining job roles and enhancing productivity, while ensuring safety and workers well-being. This study focuses on the adoption of innovative technologies, such as collaborative robots (cobots) and Augmented Reality (AR) systems, to improve flexibility and safety in manufacturing and logistics for ensuring safe Human–Robot Interaction. The aim is to evaluate how AR devices, e.g., Hololens 2, could facilitate the interaction between cobots and operators, enhancing human performance and safety during robot programming and task execution, regardless of experience levels. Furthermore, the paper proposes the introduction of additional features to the existing AR platform for HRC, such as the creation of virtual walls and real-time operator concentration monitoring using gaze tracking. These improvements aim to empower operators with greater control over collaborative spaces, and enhance safety by ensuring operator focus during critical task phases. Overall, this work contributes to advancing the adoption of Industry 5.0 principles by demonstrating practical application of HRC technologies and AR systems to improve workplaces safety, productivity and Human–Robot Interaction in manufacturing environments.

Keywords: Augmented reality , Head mounted display , Human robot interaction , Robotics , Safety

This paper presents an embedded measurement system that integrates Sweep Frequency Response Analysis (SFRA) with Augmented Reality (AR) to evaluate and visualize the State of Health (SoH) of lithium-ion batteries. SFRA, a noninvasive frequency-domain technique, is employed to detect internal battery degradation by analyzing impedance responses over a wide frequency range. The system leverages a Raspberry Pi-based architecture with edge-processing capabilities and communicates results via an MQTT-based protocol, supporting three levels of user expertise. Diagnostic outcomes are rendered in real time through an AR interface, enabling users to view health indicators directly on battery packs using a mobile device. The proposed solution enhances battery transparency, supports predictive maintenance, and aligns with forthcoming EU regulations mandating battery passports.

Keywords: Augmented Reality visualization , Battery , edge computing , MQTT communication , state of health , Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

This paper presents a Digital Twin-based framework to support the reconfiguration process of Cyber–Physical Production Systems (CPPSs) through human–robot collaboration and Industry 5.0 enabling technologies. The proposed approach integrates a Mixed Reality (MR) module into the digital twin architecture to enhance human–machine interaction, data visualisation, and robot programming. It also incorporates Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs), a hybrid methodology that combines machine learning and physical modelling to improve prediction accuracy and physical consistency. A proof of concept implementation of the framework is carried out on the reconfiguration of a real-world production line within a research platform. The communication mechanism between system modules is tested and discussed in detail. Additionally, the use of PINNs for predicting the energy consumption of a mobile robotic system involved in the reconfiguration task is implemented and benchmarked. The mobile robotic system integrates an AMR (Autonomous Mobile Robot) and a Cobot (collaborative robotic arm).

Keywords: Cyber–physical production system , Digital twin , Human–robot collaboration , Physics-informed neural network , Reconfiguration

Industry 5.0 requires practical methods to translate Augmented Reality (AR) concepts into effective shop floor applications, demonstrating their value to operators. This study introduces a framework for implementing and validating Augmented Reality (AR)-based tools designed to enhance sustainability awareness and assist operators in energy management within industrial settings. The approach combines a reference software architecture for rapid AR deployment with a three-part user-experience assessment, measuring usability (System Usability Scale - SUS), technology acceptance (Technology Acceptance Model - TAM), and cognitive workload (NASA-TLX). To test this framework, an AR-based prototype tool was deployed on enterprise smartphones and evaluated in three scenarios: monitoring service-utility energy consumption, monitoring production equipment, and conducting on- and off-the-job training of the operators. Thirty shop floor professionals completed tasks and provided UX feedback. The results showed good usability (mean SUS 78.4/100), with perceived ease of use and contextual relevance driving technology acceptance. Moreover Nasa TLX analysis indicates mental demand as the predominant factor.

Keywords: Augmented Reality , Employee training , Energy monitoring , Human-centric design , Industry 5.0 , Sustainability , User experience

Background: Associative memory is essential for episodic memory formation, and training in this domain has been shown to enhance memory in both clinical and non-clinical populations. However, the application of VR-based training in this memory domain remains underexplored. Objectives: This study aimed to develop and evaluate a VR-based intervention to improve associative memory, focusing on verbal-visual and visual-auditory stimuli associations. Methods: Five healthy younger adults (mean age = 24.6) completed 8 trials of object-name and object-sound matching tasks in a virtual environment. Results: Significant performance improvements were observed across trials, with object-name matching showing higher recognition accuracy and faster response times than object-sound matching. Conclusion: Both tasks demonstrated increased accuracy with reduced response times with training. This study underscores the importance of tailoring VR-based cognitive training to specific associative tasks, offering promising applications in memory rehabilitation and cognitive enhancement.

Keywords: Memory Training , Paired-Associate Learning , Virtual Reality

Objective: To compare augmented reality (AR) and classical intraoperative C-arm surgical navigation and evaluate whether head-mounted display improves surgical accuracy in the placement of a rod-like object, such as K-wire, using an anatomically accurate elbow phantom. Participants and Methods: Data were collected between January 10, 2024, and March 15, 2024. We developed an AR system, X-ray simulation system and surgical phantom to test K-wire placement in 3 locations of the distal humerus and proximal ulnar bones. An initial phase with only X-ray as guidance was performed as case control; in later phases, the candidates were allowed to also use the head-mounted display. The evaluation parameters were time, placement angle, number of X-ray images taken, number of attempts, and distance from anatomical structures. Results: In total, 19 physicians participated in the study. We analyzed 193 K-wire placements attempts that resulted in 150 estimated correct positions. This reflects a real-world scenario where multiple placements might be attempted to correctly place a K-wire. Compared with standard procedure, the use of AR resulted in −53.8 seconds in K-wire placement time, −47% of angular error from the K-wire target, −80% X-ray images taken to reach the estimate correct position, and decrease in distance variability of −81%, of the K-wire from anatomical structures of interest.

Background: Telemedicine is increasingly integrated into healthcare, requiring robust training for healthcare professionals. Traditional training methods often lack realism and immersion, highlighting the need for innovative approaches. Objectives: This study aims to integrate Virtual Reality with Moodle to enhance telemedicine education, focusing on chronic cardiac conditions. Methods: A VR-based training system was developed using Unity and WebXR, integrated with Moodle. The system includes a serious game with virtual patients created using Synthesia AI. Telemedicine experts configure training sessions via Moodle, while learners access preparatory materials and engage with the VR environment. Results: A usability test involving 12 participants showed high satisfaction scores (94.42% for learners, 98.29% for experts). Conclusion: This study demonstrates the potential of integrating VR with Moodle to innovate telemedicine education. The approach offers personalized and accessible training experiences for healthcare professionals to improve telemedicine skills.

Keywords: Educational Virtual Reality , Learning Health System , Medical Field Training , Telehealth

Extended reality (XR) technologies are no longer peripheral innovations but emerging cornerstones of human–technology interaction across critical sectors. This article takes the position that engineering and healthcare represent the most mature and strategically relevant domains for XR adoption, given their safety-critical nature, intensive training requirements, and strong alignment with the human-centric visions of Industry 5.0 and Healthcare 5.0. We synthesize evidence from product design, manufacturing, training, and patient care to demonstrate how XR is reshaping workflows, skills, and therapeutic practices. Beyond surveying applications, we argue that the future of XR depends on its integration with artificial intelligence, digital twins, and multisensory feedback, converging into systems capable of perceiving, reasoning, and adapting to complex physical and human environments. We contend that widespread adoption will remain limited without open standards, validated protocols, and robust evaluation frameworks addressing safety, interoperability, and data governance. By framing XR as both a technological enabler and a societal imperative, this position article calls for coordinated action among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to realize XR's role in building sustainable, personalized, and participatory innovation ecosystems.

Keywords: digital industry , extended reality , human-centered innovation , human–computer interfaces/interactions , immersive technology , virtual and augmented reality environments , virtual prototyping , XR for training , XR in healthcare , XR in manufacturing

The future of space exploration relies not only on technological advancements but also on public awareness and policy support. Sustaining long-term investments in lunar and planetary missions requires effectively engaging both the next generation and key decision-makers. However, traditional science communication methods often fail to reach audiences beyond academic and professional circles, limiting public engagement. Virtual Reality and Serious Games offer interactive and immersive experiences that make complex scientific concepts more accessible to non-experts, fostering broader support for space exploration initiatives. This study evaluates the effectiveness of a Virtual Reality Serious Game designed to simulate the Lunar Zebro rover navigating the Moon's surface. The game aims to enhance engagement, simplify scientific concepts, and shape public perception of space missions. Through iterative development and user testing, the study examines the balance between education and entertainment. Preliminary findings indicate that while the game successfully engages users and communicates mission objectives, it is primarily perceived as an interactive experience rather than a standalone educational tool. These insights highlight the potential of VR Serious Games in science communication and their role in promoting future space exploration initiatives.

Keywords: Serious Game , User Experience , Virtual Reality

Seabed mapping represents a very useful tool for seascape characterization and benthic habitat study and requires advanced technologies for acquiring, processing, and interpreting remote data. Particularly, acoustic instruments, such as high-resolution swath bathymetry sounders (i.e., multibeam echosounder: MBES), allow us to recognize, identify, and map the extension of benthic habitats without applying invasive mechanical procedures. Bathymetry and backscatter (BS) data are crucial to perform modern habitat mapping. Although the acquisition and processing of bathymetric data follow standardized procedure (e.g., Hydrographic Organization guidelines), and recent studies have proposed recommendations for backscatter acquisition and processing, a broadly validated methodological approach, integrating geomorphometric analysis for benthic habitat mapping, is still lacking. In this work, a new approach for benthic habitat mapping, with a focus on coralligenous bioconstructions, was developed using the open-source software QGIS. This methodology, tested within the Isola Capo Rizzuto Marine Protected Area (Calabria, Italy), is designed to be freely reproducible by researchers working in the field of marine ecosystem monitoring and conservation. Through the proposed mapping procedure, it is possible to (i) identify benthic habitats in selected study areas by combining bathymetry and BS data with geomorphological indices performed in QGIS and (ii) quantitatively define the 2D and 3D distribution of coralligenous bioconstructions in terms of surface covered, thickness, and volume. Moreover, the statistical analysis of quantitative morphometric data allowed for comparison of geometric characteristics of different coralligenous morphotypes. The obtained results, combined with improvement of minimally invasive sampling and geobiological–geochemical characterization, can contribute to the development of protocols aimed at monitoring marine bioconstructed ecosystems, many of which are protected by national and international regulations due to their importance for Mediterranean biodiversity preservation, and plan actions for their protection and persistence.

Spinal surgery demands exceptional theoretical knowledge and practical skills, with pedicle screw procedures posing significant risks due to proximity to critical anatomical structures. This study validates a virtual reality (VR) simulation platform for training in pedicle screw arthrodesis using patient-specific vertebral drilling templates. The practical simulation of a specific case study was evaluated with both neurosurgical residents and medical students. Results demonstrate that while experienced residents completed simulated procedures significantly faster than students (p < 0.01), these latter ones showed marked improvement across consecutive training sessions (p < 0.001). The most substantial performance gains occurred between the first and second trials, highlighting the rapid learning curve facilitated by the VR environment. System Usability Scale assessments revealed high satisfaction with the simulation platform, with participants emphasizing the value of risk-free repetitive practice. Qualitative feedback from experienced participants confirmed the precision and realism of the training environment as critical factors contributing to their efficiency. This validation confirms that VR simulation platforms offer an effective training environment for complex spinal procedures, providing a safe space for skill development before clinical application, particularly when incorporating innovative surgical aids such as patient-specific drilling templates.

Keywords: Pedicle screw insertion , Surgical template , Training , Vertebra , Virtual reality

Real-time rendering is increasingly used in augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR), interactive design, and product visualisation, where materials must prioritise efficiency and consistency rather than the extreme accuracy required in offline rendering. In parallel, the growing demand for personalised and customised products has created a need for digital materials that can be generated in-house without relying on expensive commercial systems. To address these requirements, this paper presents a low-cost digitisation workflow based on photometric stereo. The system integrates a custom-built scanner with cross-polarised illumination, automated multi-light image acquisition, a dual-stage colour calibration process, and a node-based reconstruction pipeline that produces albedo and normal maps. A reproducible evaluation methodology is also introduced, combining perceptual colour-difference analysis using the CIEDE2000 ((Formula presented.)) metric with angular-error assessment of normal maps on known-geometry samples. By openly providing the workflow, bill of materials, and implementation details, this work delivers a practical and replicable solution for reliable material capture in real-time rendering and product customisation scenarios.

Keywords: digitalisation workflow , material scanner , photometric stereo , real-time rendering , texture evaluation

Soft tissue simulation is a complex and challenging research field with applications across various domains, including engineering, design, medicine, and biomechanics. By accurately modeling soft tissues, virtual and augmented reality applications—such as medical training simulations, image-guided surgical support systems, and injury analysis—can more effectively replicate the behavior of complex human body structures. While many models have been proposed to simulate soft bodies, a major challenge has always been the heavy computational workload required to model and reproduce elastic and mechanical interactions between structures in the human body, usually not optimal for real-time applications. The aim of this work is to present an innovative workflow to simulate soft tissues in real time, leveraging the computational power offered by graphic processing units (GPUs). The proposed workflow addresses the challenge of improving the real-time performance of soft bodies deformation based on Extended Position Based Dynamics (XPBD) by proposing an original two-fold integrated approach: firstly, we optimized the XPBD model for parallel execution by using graph coloring. This technique allowed us to run the simulation without the use of atomic operations, while retaining the faster convergence speed of the parallel Gauss-Seidel solver. Subsequently, we applied it on a soft body represented as a volumetric regular lattice of particles, instead of the well-known representation based on tetrahedral or hexagonal meshes, allowing us to apply the deformation results even on highly polygonal meshes. The effectiveness of the developed system is evaluated through a series of tests aimed at proving its accuracy and performance, with a focus on providing realistic visual representation alongside computational efficiency.

Keywords: computer graphics , graph coloring , lattice model , soft tissues simulation , XPBD

This paper presents the design, development, and preliminary validation of a haptic virtual reality simulator for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Chile, aimed at enhancing psychomotor training for mechanical engineering students in line with Industry 4.0 demands. The system integrates Unity 3D, a commercial haptic device, and a custom 3D-printed electrode holder replicating the welding booth, enabling interaction through visual, auditory, and tactile feedback. Thirty students with minimal welding experience and seven experts participated in usability and realism assessments. The results showed that 80% of students perceived motor skill improvement, 60% rated realism as adequate, and 90% preferred hybrid training (simulator + workshop). The prototype was practically implemented at the mechanical engineering school, requiring only a mid-range workstation, the Touch haptic device, and the developed software, demonstrating feasibility in real academic settings. The findings indicate potential to build confidence, support motor coordination, and provide a safe, resource-efficient training environment, while experts emphasized the need for automated feedback and improved haptic fidelity. The modular architecture allows scalability, extension to other welding processes, and adaptation for inclusive education. This prototype demonstrates how locally developed immersive technologies can modernize technical education while promoting sustainability, accessibility, and skill readiness.

Keywords: engineering education , haptic feedback , Industry 4.0 , SMAW , virtual reality , welding simulator

Virtual Reality (VR) technologies have shown significant promise in expanding access to sports participation for individuals with disabilities. This paper introduces a comprehensive VR-based kayaking simulation designed to provide students with special needs, particularly those from the ASPOC association (ages 18-24), with an engaging, inclusive, and adaptive sports experience. The primary objective is to address barriers to physical activity - ranging from environmental and social to cognitive and motor limitations - by delivering an accessible virtual environment that supports real-time interaction and feedback. The simulator incorporates hand tracking, haptic feedback, adaptive difficulty levels, and integration with a physical ergometer to simulate realistic paddling dynamics. A novel element of this study is the introduction of a virtual coach powered by the Captury Live markerless motion tracking system, offering real-time, personalized guidance without requiring wearable sensors. Through a structured user study, the system's impact on user engagement, usability, physical exertion, and immersion is assessed. Results suggest the system's potential in promoting motivation, reducing social isolation, and supporting rehabilitation objectives. This paper outlines the design framework, technical implementation, and experimental findings, highlighting the role of immersive Extended Reality (XR) tools in fostering inclusive sporting opportunities.

Keywords: Adaptive sports , disabilities , inclusion , interactive kayaking , mixed reality , rehabilitation , Unity , virtual reality

This study explores the potential of combining immersive Virtual Reality (VR) training and a physically adaptive climbing wall to support cognitive development in students with disabilities. Conducted in collaboration with the ASPoC association, the study involved participants aged 19 to 24 with various cognitive challenges, including attention deficits, memory issues, and executive function delays. The system integrates a VR climbing application - developed in Unity and supported by the Captury Live markerless motion capture system - with a real climbing wall adjustable between -30° and +30°. Usability was evaluated using the System Usability Scale (SUS), while cybersickness was monitored with the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) and functional outcomes were assessed using the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). Results showed high usability scores, minimal cybersickness, and significant improvements in spatial awareness, working memory, and decision-making abilities. A paired-samples t-test indicated no significant difference between VR and real climbing wall usability, confirming comparable user acceptance. This work demonstrates the viability of hybrid VR-physical training platforms for cognitive rehabilitation in young adults with disabilities.

Keywords: Adaptive sports , disabilities , inclusion , interactive kayaking , mixed reality , rehabilitation , Unity , virtual reality

Virtual Reality (VR) is currently one of the most influential technological trends and is projected to grow significantly in the coming years. A defining feature of VR is its ability to fully immerse users in a digital environment, eliminating real-world distractions and enabling focused engagement with virtual processes. This study presents the design and implementation of a VR-based training application for the Charly4U CNC milling machine. Developed using the Unity3D engine, the tool offers an interactive, step-by-step simulation aimed at enhancing technical education and improving accessibility for users with limited machining experience. The application was tested with two user groups: engineering students and adolescents with cognitive disabilities from the ASPOC Onlus Lab. Usability was evaluated through the System Usability Scale (SUS), with results showing high user satisfaction and strong usability scores across both groups (SUS scores of 81 and 87, respectively). The findings support the effectiveness of immersive VR environments for skill development and inclusive education, demonstrating the potential of this approach to complement traditional CNC training methods in a safe and engaging way.

Keywords: Education , People with disabilities , Social equity , Special Education , Virtual Reality

In Human-Centred design methodologies the human figure is the key element for the deployment of transversal effective solutions able to meet real world demands. Extended Reality Technologies aid in conveying such design solutions in a immersive and intuitive way. This paper presents an overview of using Extended Reality Technologies in the aerospace field, emphasizing the contributions given from the Virtual Reality and Simulation Laboratory (VLAB), at the University of Bologna. Moreover, it discusses the potential of incorporating immersive media and Human-Centred Design approach for the deployment of groundbreaking transport solutions such as Advanced Air Mobility and Urban Air Mobility.

Keywords: Advanced Air Mobility (AAM) , Extended Reality (XR) Technologies , Urban Air Mobility (UAM)