Human factors and ergonomics

Given the relative success of both anthropomorphism and biophilic interventions in automated vehicles, the aim of this study was to compare these two interventions within a simulated driving scenario. A within-subjects study design was employed, in which 30 participants experienced both interventions in addition to a 4-minute baseline driving session. The biophilic intervention was presented in a mixed reality environment, while the anthropomorphic intervention was delivered via a humanoid robot. To ensure the comparability of intervention levels, both interventions were intentionally designed to be superficial rather than deep. Statistical analyses including ANOVA, t-tests, and Wilcoxon tests were conducted to compare trust, stress, user experience, and mental workload indicators. The results showed that although both interventions slightly increased mental workload and, to some extent, stress compared to the baseline condition (with no statistically significant difference), they led to an improvement in affective trust relative to the baseline. The comparison of participants' user experience indicated that the anthropomorphic intervention was perceived as more practical (higher pragmatic quality), whereas the biophilic intervention was experienced as more enjoyable and exciting (higher hedonic quality). The use of interventions such as anthropomorphizing the vehicle or incorporating natural elements into interfaces can partially address the issue of trust in autonomous vehicles. However, further studies are needed to compare each of these approaches both in simulators and on test tracks in real-world environments. At present, these results should be interpreted with caution.

Keywords: Anthropomorphism , Automated vehicle , Biophilia , Driving workload , Human-AV interaction , User Experience

The highly likely spread of autonomous vehicles has transformed the landscape of road travel, ushering in new opportunities and challenges in vehicle interior design. By removing the need for direct driver intervention, a wide array of Non-Driving-Related Activities (NDRAs) has become possible. These activities encompass working, studying, relaxing, and socializing during the ride, elevating the car from a mere instrument of transportation to an extension of our daily living space. In this context, this study aims to propose a new design for the Tesla Model 3, envisioning its evolution to SAE Level 5 autonomy, which denotes full autonomous driving capability under any conditions and in any location. We have selected the Tesla Model 3 for examination due to its compact size, posing a significant challenge for interiors' optimization. Starting with a critical review to identify the most pertinent activities for occupants, this study focuses on creating two virtual prototypes of the autonomous Tesla Model 3—one with 4 seats and another with 2 seats—to assess their spaciousness. 3D interiors model was created by CATIA V5 software, and the ergonomic evaluation was conducted using the Ergonomics Design & Analysis module, employing mannequins representing a 50 percentile French male and adopting REBA method for the virtual ergonomic assessment. The research question guiding this investigation is: “What should be the interior configuration of an autonomous vehicle to facilitate the execution of primary NDRAs?”.

Keywords: Autonomous vehicle , Comfort , Ergonomics , NDRAs , Self-driving car

The concept of driving comfort has evolved significantly with advancements in automobile technology and the emergence of self-driving vehicles. This study uses the emic/etic approach to redefine driving comfort. While manufacturers have successfully addressed physical comfort (e.g., vibration control and noise reduction), modern comfort now encompasses new aspects, which will continue to evolve with the widespread adoption of self-driving cars. In this study, an attempt has been made to achieve a comprehensive definition of comfort while using autonomous vehicles, according to some interviews which were conducted with related experts. This study is inspired by the emic/etic approach. This approach is a successful model in presenting new concepts in the psychology (personality, etc.), which has recently been tested in the interaction of humans with technology. In the preliminary examination of the results, comfort first and foremost refers to more than just physical comfort and absence of vibration. The study addresses new issues like meeting passengers' technical demands and gaining their trust in self-driving cars' decision-making. Increasing research is focusing on comfort in autonomous vehicles, particularly human-technology interaction. Expectations for self-driving cars differ from conventional ones, with people wanting autonomous vehicles to ensure comfort and safety through human-like driving patterns and to build trust by making reliable decisions, while humans monitor the driving.

Keywords: Autonomous vehicles , Emic and etic , Human-machine interaction , Physical comfort , Trust to technology

The use of passive exoskeletons in industrial settings has gained growing interest as a means to reduce muscle fatigue and prevent work-related musculoskeletal disorders. However, translating laboratory methods into realistic occupational environments remains a challenge. This study presents a modular and wearable-sensor-based experimental protocol designed to bridge this gap by enabling the evaluation of exoskeletons in both static (STC) and dynamic (DYN) tasks while preserving natural movement variability. A total of 52 participants, including both men and women, completed tasks with and without two different passive exoskeletons, while their motor activity was assessed using surface electromyography (sEMG) and inertial motion sensors. The protocol incorporates key EMG-based metrics - Root Mean Square (RMS) and Hilbert Median Frequency (MDF) - that effectively quantify muscle activation and fatigue, along with subjective Perceived Fatigue Scores (PFS) and a task performance metric (Screwing Velocity, SV). The results confirm that the exoskeletons significantly reduce muscle activation and perceived fatigue without impairing task performance. The proposed methodology, combining rigorous metrics with wearable and non-invasive instrumentation, offers a robust framework for evaluating fatigue in both STC and DYN tasks and usability in both laboratory and field settings. This protocol represents a valuable tool for both research and industrial evaluation, facilitating the evidence-based integration of exoskeletons into real-world industrial workflows.

Keywords: electromyography , exoskeleton , fatigue , sustainable manufacturing , wearable robotics

Nowadays, production systems increasingly need to be reconfigured to cope with unforeseen disruptions in workflows or supply chains, dynamic market requirements and mass personalisation. Industry 4.0 technologies, through Cyber-Physical Production Systems (CPPS), offer opportunities to address these challenges by enabling real-Time monitoring and adaptive control to manage dynamic environments and requirements. With the advent of Industry 5.0, which emphasizes human-centric production, Human-Cyber-Physical Systems (HCPS) integrate operators into decision-making loops, enhancing flexibility, resilience, and responsiveness. A key requirement for these systems is reconfigurability, which involves identifying reconfiguration needs, planning actions, and executing them. Although the initial two steps are occasionally automated to some extent, the execution phase is predominantly manual, leading to inefficiencies, higher workloads, and increased risk of errors. Enabling technologies of Industry 5.0, such as Extended Reality, offer new opportunities to overcome these challenges. This work, therefore, introduces a Mixed Reality-based framework that guides and assists operators in performing industrial tasks. The framework is developed following established guidelines from the literature and relevant industrial standards, and it adopts a modular and expandable architecture that facilitates the integration of new functionalities and use cases. The approach is implemented and validated through a case study on the execution of the reconfiguration process in a real-world production line within a research platform. A preliminary evaluation using the NASA-TLX indicates that the MR application reduces workload, mainly through improved performance and lower frustration.

Keywords: CPPS , Humancentric design , Mixed Reality , Operator guidance , Reconfiguration

Extended Reality (XR), combining Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), is transforming human-machine interaction in manufacturing by facilitating complex system design and operator training. Traditionally, VR and AR have been utilised separately-VR for virtual simulations and validation, and AR for on-site assistance. Training operators in modern manufacturing (Operator 5.0) demands integrated approaches that merge virtual scenarios with real-world applications, enhancing learning outcomes and user experience (UX). The PROXIMA project introduces an integrated XR platform designed explicitly for Operator 5.0 training, combining VR and AR into a seamless, collaborative environment. PROXIMA addresses technological and educational gaps by enabling smooth interaction between physical and virtual contexts through spatially aware multimedia content generated in AR and used within immersive VR scenarios. The platform's usability and educational effectiveness were assessed through a structured pilot study involving 35 apprentices, utilising the System Usability Scale (SUS) and qualitative feedback. Results indicated strong usability (average SUS score of 73.2), high participant engagement, improved procedural knowledge, and positive educational outcomes. User feedback informed system enhancements, particularly for AR content creation and VR navigation. PROXIMA thus significantly advances integrated XR training solutions, effectively bridging technological innovation and pedagogical practice within Industry 5.0.

Keywords: Extended reality , Operator 5.0 , Proximity , User experience , Virtual training

This paper introduces a pilot study investigating the impact of a back-support occupational exoskeleton during Manual Material Handling. The study focuses on examining parameters such as the pressure distribution of the feet on the ground, in particular the distribution of pressure between the forefoot and the rearfoot, two physiological parameters such as pulse rate and blood oxygen saturation, and general perceptions of comfort and usability. Findings reveal differences in the distribution of pressure on feet to the ground between the test performed with and without the exoskeleton. This research provides a foundation for future studies to further explore these findings and contribute to the enhancing the knowledge base in the field of workplace human factors.

Keywords: exoskeleton , human factors , human monitoring , manual material handling , wearable devices

Simulating human movement is essential for biomechanics, ergonomics, and machine learning applications. However, certain motions, such as falls, sudden collapses, or hazardous workplace incidents, are difficult to replicate in real conditions. Meta Motivo, a behavioral foundation model, provides a simulation framework based on reinforcement learning to simulate realistic human movements in a physics-based environment. It can be prompted to solve unseen tasks such as motion tracking, pose reaching, and reward optimization, while generating realistic simulations expressing human-like behavior. This work explores its potential in simulating challenging scenarios through a case study on falls, a critical issue in elderly care and workplace safety. Several strategies for simulating falls are presented, including custom reward functions, reaction time adjustments, and environmental modifications (e.g., slippery surfaces, obstacles, and external forces). This paper also presents two plugins developed to exploit these simulations: one for biomechanical analysis and another for the generation of a dataset for machine learning pose classification models. Although the results are promising, future refinements could further enhance the realism of falls and close-to-ground movements. However, this study highlights the broader applicability of Meta Motivo in replicating movements that are otherwise challenging to replicate experimentally.

Keywords: Behavioral Foundation Model , Digital Human Modeling , Fall Simulations , Meta Motivo , Motion Capture

Biophilic design, which emphasizes integrating natural elements into built environments, is increasingly valued for its positive impact on workplace well-being and productivity. This study investigates how extended reality (XR) technologies can support biophilic design by incorporating digital representations of plants into immersive virtual and augmented workspaces. Central to this research is the evaluation of methods for generating realistic and adaptable digital plants suitable for XR integration, focusing on balancing visual quality, flexibility, and usability. Photogrammetry, a technique that creates detailed 3D models by combining photographs from multiple angles, is explored for its potential to quickly produce high-resolution digital plant assets. Despite its advantages, photogrammetry struggles with rendering fine details, such as delicate branches and leaves, limiting its effectiveness in XR settings. To address these shortcomings, the study compares photogrammetry with procedural modeling — a rapidly evolving approach supported by several tools. Procedural modeling offers enhanced precision, control, and adaptability, enabling dynamic, real-time modifications and interactions in virtual environments. The research highlights how technological innovations can advance biophilic design by enabling the seamless integration of natural elements into digital workspaces. Through comparative analysis, the paper identifies optimal strategies for creating immersive, well-being-focused environments that align with the principles of biophilic design. Ultimately, this study illustrates the potential of XR to transform workplace design by merging nature-inspired elements with cutting-edge digital tools, fostering environments that support both human and organizational productivity.

Keywords: Biophilic design , Digital plants , Extended reality (XR) , Photogrammetry , Procedural modeling

The importance of training for operators in industrial contexts is widely highlighted in literature. Virtual Reality (VR) is considered an efficient solution for training, since it provides immersive, realistic, and interactive simulations environments promoting a learn-by-doing approach, far from the risks of the real field. Its efficacy has been demonstrated by several studies, but a proper assessment of the operator's cognitive response in terms of stress and cognitive load during the use of such technology is still lacking. This paper proposes an integrated methodology for the analysis of user's cognitive states, suitable for each kind of training in the industrial sector and beyond, fostering the human-centred design and manufacturing perspective. The methodology has been assessed using an industrial case study where virtual training is used for assembly of agricultural vehicles. Experimental results highlighted that, with VR additional supportive information, while operators' errors drastically decrease, the stress increases for complex tasks, due to the greater amount of information to manage. The proposed protocol allows understanding the operators' cognitive conditions in order to optimize the VR training application, avoiding operators' stress, mental overload, and improving performance.

Keywords: cognitive ergonomics , mental workload , stress , virtual assembly , Virtual reality , virtual training

The concept of Industry 5.0 (I5.0) promotes the human-centricity as the core value behind the evolution of smart manufacturing systems (SMSs), based on a novel use of digital technologies in the design and management of modern industrial systems to take up the socio-technical challenges. In this context, the paper proposes a Smart Manufacturing Systems Design (SMSD) framework enabling I5.0, based on the human-automation symbiosis. Thanks to an ‘Augmented Digital Twin' (ADT) able to integrate and digitize all the entities of the factory (i.e. machines, robots, environments, interfaces, people), AI-driven applications can be built to support the user domain and make people and machines co-evolve thanks to a systematic data sharing between physical and digital assets (e.g. digital twin, virtual mock-ups, human-machine interfaces), optimizing factory productivity and workers wellbeing. In this framework, machines and humans can both generate knowledge and learn from each other, generating a virtuous co-evolution, supporting the understanding of the human-machine interplay and the creation of an effective collaboration between people and SMSs. The framework was conceived and validated involving four industrial companies, belonging to diverse sectors, interested in overcoming the current limits of I4.0 lines by including the human factors for future SMS management.

Keywords: augmented digital twin , human-automation symbiosis , Industry 5.0 , Operator 4.0 , Operator 5.0 , smart manufacturing systems

Stroke affects approximately fifteen million people worldwide annually, with impaired hand function being one of its most common effects. Hemiparetic post-stroke patients suffer a mild loss of strength involving one side of their body: though not fully debilitating, it still impacts their everyday life activities. To prevent mobility deterioration, patients must perform well-focused and repetitive exercises during chronic rehabilitation. Virtual Reality (VR) emerges as an interesting tool in this framework, offering the possibility of training and measuring the patient's performances in ecologically valid, engaging, and challenging environments. In recent years, there has been an increasing diffusion of accessible head-mounted displays that enhance the sense of realism and immersion in a virtual scene. To explore the feasibility and efficacy of VR immersion and game mechanics in rehabilitation programs, a VR system that allows users to rehabilitate their motor skills in a home-based environment has been designed and tested considering standard measures related to usability, immersion, workload, and simulator sickness, and with the involvement of rehabilitation experts. The results demonstrate how users and experts have received the application positively, highlighting the potential of VR applications for the future development of home-based rehabilitation programs.

Keywords: Exergames , Post-Stroke Rehabilitation , Virtual Reality

In the manufacturing industry, Augmented Reality (AR) has shown significant potential in enhancing operators' capabilities while performing inspection and assembly activities. However, the augmented visualization of virtual models on physical components can present challenges and potential misunderstandings, as the visualization mode greatly influences the perception of components and the amount of information received. This study investigates the impact of rendering techniques on user performance during industrial assembly inspection tasks. In particular, a set of rendering techniques, suitable for industrial AR applications, have been selected and implemented through a dedicated AR tool. The selected AR rendering techniques have been compared, in terms of qualitative and quantitative metrics, in order to test their efficiency and effectiveness for industrial assembly inspection activities. 17 domain experts and 33 representative users have been involved in the experimental study which outcomes reveal that the rendering techniques play a significant role in assisting operators for identifying design discrepancies in industrial products. Furthermore, a correlation has been observed between the two AR rendering techniques best suited to support industrial inspection activities and the types of assembly errors detected.

Keywords: AR rendering techniques , Augmented Reality , Industrial assembly inspection , Industry 4.0 , Quality inspection

The idea presented in this contribution stems from the authors' interest and previous experience in designing aids for individuals with disabilities in the field of Accessible Tourism - AT. Specifically, the focus has been directed towards devices utilized in the seaside sector, with an analysis conducted on beach wheelchairs. The study involved both a market analysis and an examination of the regulatory framework. Two main results were obtained. Firstly, the analysis of the regulatory framework revealed potential challenges in interpreting rules and regulations, particularly regarding design, safety, and testing requirements. Secondly, the market analysis demonstrated that all currently available devices necessitate users switching from their personal wheelchairs to beach wheelchairs. Considering these findings, a conceptual solution is proposed to adapt one's personal wheelchair for movement on sandy terrains. This solution entails a kit comprising beach wheels mounted on a lightweight frame, potentially incorporating a self-propelled device to replace the manual wheelchair's existing wheels. It is important to note that this solution is intended to supplement existing beach wheelchairs rather than replace them, thereby broadening the options available to individuals with mobility impairments.

Keywords: Accessible Tourism , Assistive products , Beach wheelchairs , Design methods , User-Centered Design

Manual handling tasks, both in daily activities and at work, require high dexterity and the ability to move objects of different shapes and sizes. However, musculoskeletal disorders that can arise due to aging, disabilities, overloading, or strenuous work can impact the natural capabilities of the hand with serious repercussions both in working and daily activities. To address this, researchers have been developing and proving the benefits of wrist exoskeletons. This paper, which is Part II of a study on wrist exoskeletons, presents and summarizes wearable wrist exoskeleton devices intended for use in rehabilitation, assistance, and occupational fields. Exoskeletons considered within the study are those available either in a prototyping phase or on the market. These devices can support the human wrist by relieving pain or mitigating fatigue while allowing for at least one movement. Most of them have been designed to be active (80%) for higher force/torque transmission, and soft for better kinematic compliance, ergonomics, and safety (13 devices out of 24, more than 50%). Electric motors and cable transmission (respectively 11 and 9 devices, out of 24, i.e., almost 50% and 40%) are the most common due to their simplicity, controllability, safety, power-to-weight ratio, and the possibility of remote actuation. As sensing technologies, position and force sensors are widely used in all devices (almost 90%). The control strategy depends mainly on the application domain: for rehabilitation, CPM (control passive motion) is preferred (35% of devices), while for assistance and occupational purposes, AAN (assistance-as-needed) is more suitable (38% of the devices). What emerges from this analysis is that, while rehabilitation and training are fields in which exoskeletons have grown more easily and gained some user acceptance (almost 18 devices, of which 4 are available on the market), relatively few devices have been designed for occupational purposes (5, with only 2 available on the market) due to difficulties in meeting the acceptance and needs of users. In this perspective, as a result of the state-of-the-art analysis, the authors propose a conceptual idea for a portable soft wrist exoskeleton for occupational assistance.

Keywords: industrialization issues , occupational sector , rehabilitation field , wearable devices , wrist exoskeletons

The Axiomatic Design (AD) instruments provide a valuable insight for qualitative design evaluation. After having defined the inputs and outputs for the designed system, one can quickly check if it is convenient for the user to address the outputs by the inputs. Thus, AD helps to evaluate the usability of the design or the user interface, although the user interface can be given much wider sense, evaluating the interactions of the design during manufacturing, installation and maintenance. At the same time Axiomatic Design has its restrictions of applicability, which we focus on here. First, AD only shows what design is good, but it provides less guidance on how to make a good/independent design from the existing structure. Second, AD covers the only case where the number of Design parameters is equal to the number of Function Requirements. Finally, AD assumes that the mapping from Design parameters (DPs) to Function Requirements (FRs) is static, whereas very often the influence of DPs on FRs is time-dependent and it also neglects possible valuable resource – the time. In the research these drawbacks have been addressed from Control/System Theory prospective. First of all, we reveal a formal procedure how to construct the independent design for a linear system when the number of DPs is equal to FRs; the idea is based on eigen-decomposition of a matrix. Then, we generalize AD with the time domain, thus making it possible to address dynamic systems and use all the operators of Control Theory. We show that a controller can be added for the system design to make it independent. Finally, we extend the definition of independence to the case where the number of FRs is not equal to the number of DPs.

Keywords: Axiomatic Design , Control Theory , Dynamic Axiomatic Design , Dynamic Systems

The Industry 5.0 paradigm emphasizes the importance of the operator's well-being by seeing human-centricity as one of its cardinal principles. This enables a twofold benefit, improving the sustainability of the production process and enhancing performance. Improving performance and increasing operators' safety is often related to cognitive load optimization. Confined spaces are working environments where elements of distraction, such as noise, can cause accidents with major, even fatal, consequences. Studies on the effects of noise on cognitive abilities present mixed results, and those concerning confined spaces are limited as they require an expensive experimental setup replicating the working scenario. Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) technology enables overcoming this gap by replicating the experimental conditions in a synthetic environment. We exploited IVR to study noise's impact on cognitive performance in confined spaces. We compared the impact of a stationary continuous noise source with an intermittent non-periodic one by administering the Stroop Color and Word Test. We also assessed the perceived cognitive effort by administering the modified noise-induced task load index questionnaire. We also compared the effects on the operator's physiological activity through Heart Rate Variability (HRV) analysis. Results show that by keeping the equivalent noise level lower than 85 dB, noise has no statistically significant effects on cognitive performance and Heart Rate.

Keywords: Cognitive Performance , Heart Rate Variability , Noise Effects , Stroop Color and Word Test , Virtual Reality

The role played by emotions and attention is crucial for the development of advanced driver assistance systems that improve safety by flexibly adapting to the current state of the driver. In the present study, we used immersive virtual reality as a testing tool to investigate how different emotional states affect drivers' attention in a divided attention task. Two different emotional states, diversified by valence and arousal, were induced before performing a divided attention task in a driving simulation. The experimental task developed for this study allowed us to explore if and how two different emotional states can affect the way drivers divide their attention between a central driving-related task and a peripheral visual task. Our results showed that scared drivers presented lower reaction times at the central task compared to relaxed drivers. On the contrary, the emotional state did not affect the performance at the peripheral task, which revealed instead a significant effect of the eccentricity at which the visual stimuli were presented, influencing both the accuracy of targets' perception and participants' reaction times.

Keywords: ADAS , Attention , Emotions , Virtual reality

In the last couple of decades, the research on 3D facial expression recognition has been fostered by the creation of tailored databases containing prototypical expressions of different individuals and by the advances in cost effective acquisition technologies. Though, most of the currently available databases consist of exaggerated facial expressions, due to the imitation principle which they rely on. This makes these databases only partially employable for real world applications such as human-computer interaction for smart products and environments, health, and industry 4.0, as algorithms learn on these ‘inflated' data which do not respond to ecological validity requirements. In this work, we present two novel 2D + 3D spontaneous facial expression databases of young adults with different geographical origin, in which emotions have been evoked thanks to affective images of the acknowledged IAPS and GAPED databases, and verified with participants' self-reports. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first three-dimensional facial databases with emotions elicited by validated affective stimuli.

Keywords: 3D facial expression , Affective database , Ecological validity , Facial expression recognition , Human-computer interaction , Spontaneous expressions