3D scanning

Mandibular reconstruction, particularly with temporomandibular joint (TMJ) involvement, is a challenging procedure where precise evaluation of condylar displacement is critical for assessing functional and anatomical outcomes. The complexity of this evaluation stems from anatomical variability, surgical techniques, and post-surgical changes, making consistent and reliable assessments difficult. To address this issue, we developed an innovative, standardized procedure for the evaluation of condylar displacement following mandibular reconstruction. The proposed procedure starts from biomedical image analysis and integrates precise segmentation with an innovative standardized alignment technique, ensuring reproducibility across different reconstructive approaches, regardless of the surgical method used. This procedure was validated through a retrospective study of 18 patients, employing a consistent 3D model reconstruction and analysis workflow. The results demonstrate that the developed procedure provides a reliable framework for comparing different reconstructive methods, regardless of whether they employ CAD/AM techniques or conventional approaches, offering a repeatable and adaptable approach for assessing mandibular reconstruction outcomes. This methodology lays the groundwork for future improvements in surgical planning and post-operative evaluation, ultimately contributing to the optimization of both functional and aesthetic results in mandibular reconstruction.

Keywords: 3D model reconstruction , condylar displacement evaluation , mandibular reconstruction , standardized alignment procedure

This paper, in the frame of the Tectonic project (TEchnological Consortium TO develop sustaiNabIlity of underwater Cultural heritage), presents recent results obtained from the work on the shipwreck of the 19th Century schooner Emma, one of the selected submerged archaeological pilot sites. The wreck of Emma is located in Chubut province, Patagonia, Argentina. The main task consisted of the development of a 3D photogrammetric model to be integrated into a virtual reality (VR) end product. The technique employed in the process is described, noting the necessary adjustments required for its application in an underwater environment. Finally, the potential of this type of technique is discussed as a means of promoting tourism as well as underwater heritage management and protection, particularly important in the context of the characteristics of the remote Patagonian region.

Keywords: Patagonia , Photogrammetry , Shipwrecks , Underwater cultural heritage , Virtual reality

In tumor resection surgery, an approach to the reconstruction of the bone anatomy, after removal of the tumor, is represented by allografts. A good match between the donor and recipient is crucial in enhancing integration and minimizing failure rate. However, the recipient bone is often altered by the tumor, making the comparison unreliable. Moreover, evaluating multiple donors is often a complex and time-consuming process. Thus, in this work, an algorithm is proposed that is able to automatically reconstruct the virtual healthy bone anatomy of the recipient and to use this reconstruction to select the most suitable donor. The proposed algorithm first reconstructs the healthy anatomy by aligning the bone to the mirrored contralateral using the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm. Then, to select the optimal donor, the algorithm queries a digital bone bank by aligning the reconstructed template to donor candidates using a localized search strategy. Finally, L1-Chamfer Distance and a newly devised metric called Surface Distance are computed to evaluate the similarity and assess the optimal donor. The algorithm was validated on a dataset of 49 healthy femurs by creating 980 simulated resections. A retrospective study on two real cases was also conducted. The algorithm achieved a median L1-Chamfer Distance of 0.7217 mm and a Surface Distance of 0.3225 mm for the reconstruction of the healthy anatomy and 0.8621 mm and 0.5338 mm, respectively, for the best donor. The retrospective studies showed how the algorithm was able to outperform the manual procedure in both time and accuracy of the allograft. These case studies highlighted how the algorithm performs efficiently even in real case scenarios, enhancing the shape matching between the recipient and donor bone and thus possibly improving post-operative outcomes.

Hollow Fiber Membrane Bioreactors (HFMBs) support mammalian cell culture at high cell density by enabling effective transport of nutrients, gases and metabolites to/from cells and by offering high membrane surface area-to-bioreactor volume ratios, scalability and flexibility in design. A recent study showed that shell-and-tube HFMBs with cells in the extracapillary space (ECS) for medicine may be designed to mimic the bone architecture for bone tissue engineering (TE). A more transport-efficient HFMB, the BRx-HFMB, consists of a 3D stack of alternating cross-woven mats of microporous and gas-permeable hollow fiber membranes with cells in the ECS and medium flowing inside the membranes. This design was shown to support the culture of a large mass of densely packed cells with high oxygen and nutrient metabolic demands similar to bone cells. Its biomimicry and rationale for good performance are poorly characterized, hindering exploitation of its characteristics for bone TE. Herein, we report the architectural and biomimetic characterization of pore/void distribution in the ECS of laboratory BRx-HFMBs using non-invasive non-destructive micro-computed tomography and advanced image analysis to minimize artifacts. The results suggest that the ECS pore architecture and specific surface area of BRx-HFMBs mimic those of bone tissue, favoring cell migration around, and adhesion on, membranes at clinical cell densities. The membrane network architecture enables cell perfusion with medium, and membranes act as spatially distributed oxygen sources promoting oxygen transport through the cell construct over longer distances than in static bioreactors. This supports the use of BRx-HFMBs to develop cellular models of bone tissue for drug testing and precision medicine. This journal is

Non-invasive assessment of spinal morphology traditionally relies on subjective manual palpation or data-driven deep learning models that often lack metrological interpretability. This study presents a fully automated, purely geometric framework for the localization and morphometric characterization of spinous processes directly from 3D dorsal surface scans. Leveraging continuous differential geometry and the scale-invariant properties of the shape index, the proposed algorithm operates independently of training data, physical markers, and ionizing radiation. Validation against expert clinical palpation demonstrated high spatial reliability, yielding a mean spatial deviation of 3.7 mm and a 98.6% Confidence Index in matching manually identified landmarks. Notably, the computational framework exhibited heightened morphological sensitivity, consistently extracting mathematically valid geometric signatures in spinal regions conservatively bypassed by the clinician. This resulted in a theoretical algorithmic False Negative Rate bounded between 13.5% and 14.6%, compared to a 33.1% manual rate. Furthermore, the system autonomously evaluated morphometric parameters, such as basal width, symmetry index, and local apical prominence, successfully classifying 327 apophyses into “prominent” (19%) and “masked” (81%) morphotypes across complex, soft-tissue-mediated topographies. While these findings highlight the method's capability to standardize and objectify dorsal surface assessment, definitive anatomical fidelity requires future radiological correlation. Ultimately, this robust topographic profiling lays the foundation for autonomously quantifying structural asymmetries in clinical spinal deformities.

Keywords: 3D surface topography , Automated detection , Differential geometry , Morphometrics , Non-invasive spinal assessment , Spinous process localization

Bengala, a steamer that sank in 1889 near Capo Rizzuto, Italy, was a relatively new vessel for its time, with an unusually short 18-year service life, given that steamers of the period typically operated for 30 to 40 years. Despite its brief history, SS Bengala played a significant role in the development of Italy's young merchant navy, undergoing multiple ownership changes and serving various Italian shipping companies. Employed mainly along the route to Southeast Asia, it transported Italian migrants overseas and also participated in troop raids during the Italian military expedition to Eritrea in 1887. Despite its historical significance, no iconographic material has yet been found to depict SS Bengala, and archival research conducted in Italy and England has not uncovered any naval plans, photographs, or drawings of the ship. To overcome this gap, the authors employed new technologies and historical information to create a virtual reconstruction. This research combined archival sources with underwater surveys, including a detailed 3D survey by divers and archaeologists. Archival research, including consultation of official documents, provided critical information on the ship's dimensions, superstructure, rigging, materials, and construction methods. The 3D modelling of the ship's external hull, based on precise geometric data from the wreck site, offers a first step towards virtual reconstruction. The modelling is grounded in photogrammetric surveying techniques, ensuring high accuracy in the reconstruction process. The model can be used in augmented reality (AR) applications to enhance underwater exploration, allowing divers to visualise the reconstructed ship in its original environment. Additionally, it supports museum exhibits, interactive visualisations, and educational games, making it a valuable resource for engaging the public with maritime history and archaeology.

Keywords: 3D reconstruction , historic iron ship , maritime archaeology , shipwreck , steam-powered vessel and steamer , underwater heritage , underwater photogrammetry

Background and objective: Accurately measuring cervical vertebrae dimensions is crucial for diagnosing conditions, planning surgeries, and studying morphological variations related to gender, age, and ethnicity. However, traditional manual measurement methods, due to their labour-intensive nature, time-consuming process, and susceptibility to operator variability, often fall short in providing the objectivity required for reliable measurements. This study addresses these limitations by introducing a novel computer-based method for automatically identifying the dimensional features of human cervical vertebrae, leveraging 3D geometric models obtained from CT or 3D scanning. Methods: The proposed approach involves defining a local coordinate system and establishing a set of rules and parameters to evaluate the typical dimensional features of the vertebral body, foramen, and spinous process in the sagittal and coronal planes of the high-density point cloud of the cervical vertebra model. This system provides a consistent measurement reference frame, improving the method's reliability and objectivity. Based on this reference system, the method automates the traditional standard protocol, typically performed manually by radiologists, through an algorithmic approach. Results: The performance of the computer-based method was compared with the traditional manual approach using a dataset of nine complete cervical tracts. Manual measurements were conducted following a defined protocol. The manual method demonstrated poor repeatability and reproducibility, with substantial differences between the minimum and maximum values for the measured features in intra- and inter-operator evaluations. In contrast, the measurements obtained with the proposed computer-based method were consistent and repeatable. Conclusions: The proposed computer-based method provides a more reliable and objective approach for measuring the dimensional features of cervical vertebrae. It establishes a procedural standard for deducing the morphological characteristics of cervical vertebrae, with significant implications for clinical applications, such as surgical planning and diagnosis, as well as for forensic anthropology and spinal anatomy research. Further refinement and validation of the algorithmic rules and investigations into the influence of morphological abnormalities are necessary to improve the method's accuracy.

Keywords: Biomedical engineering , Cervical vertebrae , CT measures standardization

An effective method to enable the enjoyment of works of art by the blind is to reproduce tactile copies of the work, to facilitate tactile exploration. This is even more important when it comes to paintings, which are inherently not accessible to the blind unless they are transformed into 3D models. Today, artificial intelligence techniques are rapidly growing and represent a paramount method for solving a variety of previously hard-to-solve tasks. It is, therefore, presumable that the translation from 2D images to 3D models using such methods will be also in continuous development. Unfortunately, reconstructing a 3D model from a single image, especially when it comes to painting-based images, is an ill-posed problem due to the depth ambiguity and the lack of a ground truth for the 3D model. To confront this issue, this paper proposes an overview of artificial intelligence-based methods for reconstructing 3D geometry from a single image is provided. The survey explores the potentiality of Convolutional Neural Networks, Generative Adversarial Networks, Variational Autoencoders, and zero-shot methods. Through a small set of case studies, the capabilities and limitations of CNNs in creating a 3D-scene model from artworks are also encompassed. The findings suggest that, while deep learning models demonstrate that they are effective for 3D retrieval from paintings, they also call for post-processing and user interaction to improve the accuracy of the 3D models.

Keywords: 3D printing , blind people , CNNs , GANs , paintings , VAEs

In this work, we propose a methodology for the comprehensive characterization of complex objects, such as airless tires, based on optical methods. In particular, a tailored approach based on laser scanning principle of triangulation, Digital Image Correlation (DIC) and Shearography has been developed, to provide an exhaustive set of metrology tools for such new automotive technology. In our investigation a non-pneumatic tire of type MICHELIN® X® TWEEL® UTV has been considered as a case study. A three-dimensional (3D) analysis, the characterization concerning the evaluation of the structure behavior under a vertical load, the measurement of the shape for testing junction areas and the investigation of the faults in tire sections are reported. The information carried out by the optical techniques was used to develop and validate a finite element (FE) model. The proposed approach could be a valid tool to characterize such complex structures opening the way for a different approach in line with the industry 4.0 paradigm and monitoring the airless performance during the time and in various conditions.

Keywords: Non-destructive characterization , Non-pneumatic tire , Optical method

Nowadays, driving simulation devices represent a continuously evolving and developing area in the world of virtual reality. One of the fundamental elements in the design of driving software is the track model. This work aims to study the use of advanced technologies for the three-dimensional modeling of a racing track in a driving simulator. Specifically, it employs the LiDAR methodology to acquire the three-dimensional coordinates of a 1 km long circuit located on the Fisciano campus of the University of Salerno. The purpose of this work is to explain and present a novel track acquisition and modeling methodology within the realm of simulated driving reality. Following the study, the Virtual Reality Laboratory's driving simulator at the Department of Industrial Engineering conducted tests to validate the proposed circuit model. The test rides analyzed the realism of the driving experience, thereby validating the proposed track model. This phase was complemented by a series of proposals for possible future developments in the field of three-dimensional modeling applied to driving simulation and beyond. In the end, the 3D model obtained demonstrated the high definition of the acquired result and the speed with which multiple data were obtained simultaneously, thanks to the laser scanner used.

Keywords: 3D modeling , driving simulation , LiDAR data , real-world driving , track modeling , virtual environment , virtual reality , virtual reality

In the Medical Reverse Engineering (MRE) field, the manipulation of computed tomography (CT) scans from patients is complex, especially regarding the development of 3D anatomical models of patients' anatomy. This complexity depends on the variability of human anatomy, thus involving several challenges in the fabrication of custom biomedical devices. Low back pain is a worldwide widespread disease, whose cause is still unknown today. Indeed, a comprehensive understanding of spinal biomechanics is the goal that needs to be achieved for the evolution of surgical therapies and the design of useful devices for pathologies. Hence, Finite Element (FE) modelling of the lumbar spine is an important tool, useful for understanding the spinal physiological and pathological conditions. However, the obstacle of complex geometries is of extreme relevance. The aim of this paper is to support the existing literature to provide new models that can be used in FE modelling of the spine. Therefore, a novel model of the lumbar spine L4-5 with simplified intervertebral disc geometry was created and then the following model was validated using experimental data obtained from the literature about the long-term loading.

Keywords: Biomechanics , Intervertebral disc , Lumbar spine , Medical Reverse Engineering

Tread geometry is one of the parameters that influence wear. Hence, investigating tread geometries and their evolution during tire usage becomes crucial for mitigating wear-related emissions. Among the state-of-the-art measurement methods, 3D scanning is notable for its ability to provide detailed insights into tread geometry. This study introduces a methodology for analysing the evolution of tire tread geometry, aiming to improve tire wear analysis. The proposed approach based on first derivative analysis and discrete data binning, was tested exploiting a benchmark tire generated virtually in a CAD software and sampling a point cloud on its surface, resembling 3D scanning acquisition. The results show its capability of leveraging 3D scanning technology to provide detailed insights into tread geometry by isolating sampled points located within grooves from those belonging to the outermost surface. The recognition of geometric features allows for the separate analysis of the different layers, extending the capability of average profile-based wear assessments to complex tread patterns, such as directional tires.

Keywords: Tire 3D scanning , Tire wear , Tread geometry evolution

Additive manufacturing components are prone to defects, including warping and cracking, which can significantly impact their mechanical performance. Determining deformations in lattice structures remains challenging. This paper presents a methodological framework for computing deformation matrices in additively manufactured lattice samples using 3D scanning. The sample's geometry is acquired through 3D scanning, registered to a reference model, and vertices are determined and used for computing deformation metrics, including volumetric scaling factors, isovolumetric scaling, and angular deformations. A sensitivity analysis comparing four association criteria demonstrates the reliability of the Gaussian Best Fit Plane External. Assessing deformation in lattice structures can be useful for optimizing printing parameters and compensating for process-induced deformations.

Keywords: 3D scanners , Additive Manufacturing , Deformations , Lattice Structures

This study validates an innovative method using 3D facial scanning technology to analyze the depth of wrinkles and their potential correlation with cardiovascular risk factors. The research quantitatively assessed the severity of wrinkles in the forehead (HF), glabellar (GF), and periorbital (PO) regions, establishing a link between visible signs of aging and cardiovascular health risks. A trend was observed where greater wrinkle volume corresponds to higher cardiovascular risk scores, although the relationship was not uniformly linear, suggesting a complex interplay of factors influencing both cardiovascular health and aging.

Keywords: 3D Facial Scanning , 3D Model , Cardiovascular Risk , Deviation Analysis , Wrinkles

This paper presents a method for designing a customized ergonomic office chair backrest aimed at improving user posture and long-term health. Given the importance of ergonomics in workplace settings, this study leverages 3D scanning and additive manufacturing to create personalized cushions that conform precisely to individual anatomical shapes, aligning with ergonomic standards. The process begins with high-resolution scans of both the user's back and a standard chair backrest, followed by cushion modeling in Blender to ensure exact fit and support. Additive manufacturing was selected for cushion fabrication, using a TPU material with an optimized internal structure to enhance comfort. Results indicate a notable improvement in posture alignment and comfort, verified through comparative scans before and after customization. The custom backrest also encourages proper posture through a postural retraining effect and provides a high level of hygiene due to its non-porous material.

Keywords: Additive manufacturing , Custom cushion , Ergonomic chair

In the integration of structured light systems (SLSs) into automotive manufacturing pipelines, achieving reliable 3D reconstruction under industrial conditions remains a critical challenge. Factors such as environmental variability, surface reflectivity, and optical configuration often compromise dimensional accuracy and point cloud quality, limiting the deployment of SLSs for inspection tasks. This paper presents a practical metric-based methodology for evaluating the dimensional accuracy and point cloud quality of SLSs targeted at automotive inspection applications. Unlike existing approaches focused primarily on theoretical or hardware-specific parameters, the proposed methodology considers all phases of the acquisition–reconstruction pipeline, including calibration, environmental variability, and image enhancement strategies, to practically guide engineers step-by-step in adapting SLSs to real-world operational constraints. The methodology was experimentally validated through a case study in an automotive production setting, where it enabled the detection of reconstruction biases caused by surface reflectivity and viewing angle. It also demonstrated the ability to quantify improvements obtained through image enhancement algorithms. These results confirm the methodology's capacity to expose critical performance trade-offs and guide optimization choices in practical inspection scenarios. By offering a repeatable and application-oriented evaluation framework, the methodology supports the robust integration of digital vision systems in industrial workflows, facilitating more informed decisions for system designers, process engineers, and quality control professionals.

Keywords: 3D reconstruction , accuracy evaluation , image enhancement , manufacturing inspection , point cloud analysis , structured light system

Two iron objects, found during the excavation of a rural settlement in Ono San Pietro (Valle Camonica – Italy), dating back to the I-IV century CE, were interpreted as parts of a wagon wheel. A reverse engineering procedure was followed to support this hypothesis. The objects were digitalised by laser-scanning technique, to obtain virtual models that could be easily analysed and measured. Comparing the shape and the size of the objects with those of other finds of the Roman Age, the hypothesis that they were parts of a wheel appeared the most likely. In particular, one could be the external ring mounted at the hub ends; the other one could be a bushing to be mounted in the internal hub cavity to prevent wear of the wooden parts. Starting from the size of the finds, a possible wheel to which they could belong was reconstructed, taking as reference the proportions of some Roman wheels found elsewhere. Subsequently, the whole axle was reconstructed following the same concept. The load capacity of the axle was determined by means of Finite Element analyses, which revealed it was suitable for heavy load transportation.

Keywords: Finite Elements Analysis , Laser-Scanner Acquisition , Roman Age , Wagon , Wheel Parts

A major challenge in constructing models of the human body or body parts stems from the fact that they are actually composed of several solid bodies articulated together. Consequently, 3D models must be parameterised with reference to joint angles: scans of the foot taken at different plantar/dorsal flexion angles were used in this study as a benchmark. The imple-mented methodology was based on the regression fitting of landmark trajectories obtained on a limited number of foot poses; these same landmarks were then used to guide 3D mesh morphing to predict foot geometry at different plantar/dorsal flexion angles. A careful optimi-sation of the methodology was performed to identify the optimal set of foot scans. The comparison between the actual foot shapes obtained by 3D laser scanning and the predicted shapes showed that the average error is at most 6.57 ± 2.74 mm. The methodology indications were finally drawn based on these error estimates. Further works will consider combined motions including flexion/extension, internal/external rotation, and foot inversion/eversion. © 2025 by the authors of this article.

Keywords: 3D laser scanner , 4D model , foot landmarks , mesh morphing , shape prediction

In the project development of large fusion machines, the alignment and assembly phases represent an open challenge. Each mechanical component that constitutes the whole machine assembly and fixtures is affected by an intrinsic geometrical variation due to manufacturing and assembly processes. The complexity of the assembly together with the unavoidable geometrical imperfection can affect the expected machine functionalities. In this context, Reverse Engineering activities, aiming at obtaining the as-built of the components, coupled with virtual fitting studies, defining optimum alignment using the real shape of the components, become powerful risk mitigation tools in the assembly phases. This work presents a systematic method, complementary to the methodology currently followed in the ITER project, for the as-built management and for the validation of alignment phases of such a complex assembly. The first phase is to identify the key assembly requirements which drive the alignment of the ITER assembly. Then, the database for the requirement collection is clearly organized following the proper nomenclature rules and its architecture for data collection and analysis is indeed set up.

Keywords: Alignment , As-built Management , Assembly Requirements , ITER tokamak , Requirement Management , Virtual Fitting

The advent of virtual simulation and Augmented Reality has had a profound impact on industrial processes, enhancing operational efficiency and optimising production workflows. This paper presents a comprehensive study on the development and implementation of a Mixed Reality Lab designed for the assembly and disassembly of industrial products. The primary objective is to create an advanced and intuitive Virtual Reality (VR) environment that facilitates industrial operators' learning and reduces training time while minimising errors. The project encompasses the scanning and 3D modelling of industrial components using various technologies, including photogrammetry, structured light, laser scanning, and LiDAR. These techniques are evaluated for their precision and effectiveness in generating accurate 3D models. The VR environment is developed using Unity, incorporating features that support interactive and immersive user experiences. Detailed methodologies for the creation and refinement of point clouds, mesh generation, and virtual environment setup are provided. The assembly and disassembly processes are tested using a brake assembly as a case study, thereby demonstrating the system's ability to manage complex industrial tasks. The results indicate significant improvements in training efficiency and operational precision, with potential applications across various industrial sectors.

Keywords: Mixed reality , Simulation , Training , User-centred application